Modern Spanish History: Key Events and Transformations (1808-1939)

The Early 19th Century: Uprisings and Constitutional Shifts

May 2, 1808: Uprising in Madrid

This date marks a significant popular uprising against French occupation in Madrid, a pivotal moment leading to the Peninsular War.

March 19, 1812: The First Spanish Constitution

Known as "La Pepa," this constitution was a landmark document with the following features:

• Division of powers.
• National sovereignty.
• Male universal suffrage.

Ferdinand VII rejected this constitution upon his return. In 1820, Colonel Rafael del Riego staged a coup, restoring the 1812 Constitution and initiating the Liberal Triennium. However, Ferdinand VII later reintroduced absolutism.

American Independence Movements (1811-1825)

The period between 1811 and 1825 saw the independence of most Spanish American colonies. Key causes included:

• A power vacuum in the Iberian Peninsula due to the Napoleonic Wars.
• The inspiring example of British colonial independence.
• The spread of Enlightenment ideas.
• Growing Creole nationalist movements.

Isabella II and the Carlist Wars (1833-1868)

Isabella II succeeded Ferdinand VII, leading to the protracted Carlist Wars between her supporters (liberals) and those of her uncle, Don Carlos (absolutists). During her reign, significant political reforms and confiscations were carried out. In 1868, the Glorious Revolution, a liberal movement, erupted, leading to Isabella II's abdication and exile.

The Revolutionary Sexennium and First Republic (1868-1874)

Following the Glorious Revolution, a new liberal and progressive monarchy was established. Amadeo I, who reigned briefly, abdicated in 1873 due to a lack of popular support.

In 1873, the Spanish Cortes proclaimed the First Spanish Republic, which lasted only 11 months.

The Bourbon Restoration (1874-1931)

In 1874, General Arsenio Martínez Campos staged a coup against the Republic, restoring Alfonso XII (son of Isabella II) to the throne. Antonio Cánovas del Castillo designed a new political regime, known as the Bourbon Restoration, which endured until 1931.

The Constitution of 1876

This constitution established a system where:

• Sovereignty resided in the Cortes with the King.
• Census suffrage (limited suffrage based on wealth) was implemented.

The period was characterized by the "Turno Pacífico" (peaceful rotation) of dominant parties: the Liberal Party (led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta) and the Conservative Party (led by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo).

Issues such as the Carlist Wars and uprisings in Cuba were temporarily resolved. After Alfonso XII's death, his wife, Maria Christina of Austria, served as regent.

The Crisis of 1898 and Alfonso XIII's Reign

The Crisis of 1898

In 1898, Cuba revolted, leading to U.S. intervention. Spain suffered a devastating defeat, losing Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. This event, known as the "Crisis of '98," profoundly impacted Spanish society and politics.

Alfonso XIII ascended the throne. Key political figures during his reign included the Conservative Antonio Maura and the Liberal José Canalejas. This era also saw the rise of Basque and Catalan nationalism.

The Tragic Week of 1909

In 1909, Barcelona experienced the Tragic Week, a series of violent confrontations led by anarchists. The army intervened to restore order.

The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)

A serious political and economic crisis occurred in 1917. After the Spanish army suffered a devastating defeat in Morocco in 1921, Miguel Primo de Rivera staged a coup in 1923, establishing a military dictatorship with the King's permission. Primo de Rivera's rule lasted until 1930.

The Second Spanish Republic (1931-1939)

Elections in 1931 led to the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic. Manuel Azaña became a prominent figure, attempting to draft a new progressive constitution and implement extensive reforms.

In 1933, new elections resulted in a victory for right-wing parties. By 1936, the Popular Front (a left-wing coalition) won the elections, further polarizing the country and intensifying political tensions.

July 18, 1936: Outbreak of Civil War

The deep divisions culminated in the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War on July 18, 1936.

The war (1936-1939) involved two main factions:

• The Republicans (loyal to the elected government).
• The Nationalists (rebels led by General Francisco Franco).

Consequences of the War

The Spanish Civil War had profound and lasting consequences:

• Massive casualties, wounded, and exiles.
• Extensive material damage across the country.
• The victors suppressed progressivism and liberalism.
• General Francisco Franco, the victor, established a dictatorship that lasted for nearly four decades.

Under Franco's regime, republican, social, and democratic legislation was repealed. A centralized dictatorship was established, characterized by economic autarky and severe repression.