Family, Gender Roles and Social Change: Critical Perspectives on Indian and Western Society
Q. What do you mean by family? Give a short description of family and gender.
Family is a group of two or more persons related by birth, marriage or adoption who live together; all such related persons are considered members of one family. For example, if an elderly married couple, their daughter with her husband and two children, and the nephew of the elderly couple all lived in the same house or apartment, all of them would be considered members of one family.
Gender Roles
Gender roles play an important role in the evolution of how far the United States has come. Women and men have not always held the same rights, nor have the same ideas imposed upon them by society been kept unchanged. Many studies have shown a wide range of differences in medicine, wages, household responsibilities, parental duties and needs.
In the 1920s, with the 19th Amendment, women were granted the right to vote. Decades later, sufficient studies have shown that gender gaps exist in many areas of life. In his essay "Turkey in the Kitchen," Dave Barry says, "Before women's liberation, men took care of the cars and women took care of the kitchen, whereas now that we have women's liberation, men no longer feel obliged to take care of the cars" (74).
Barry argues that since women have developed to hold full-time jobs for the economy and to fulfil full-time motherly roles, men no longer feel obliged to contribute as much as they did decades ago. Men were expected to work hard for long hours in the sun and provide livelihood for their families. Women work to meet economic demands for a comfortable life. Gender roles in the workforce have become equal; however, most women work in a job and are also the primary caregivers at home. Barry's humorous account of how the turkey would manage in the kitchen, and how his wife would be more efficient at performing some household tasks, lends credibility to the claim that women's roles have increased.
Q. Write a critical note on the feminist tendencies of gender.
Feminist Literary Criticism
Feminist literary criticism is literary criticism informed by feminist theory, or more broadly, by feminist politics. It uses the principles and ideology of feminism to critique literature. This school of thought seeks to analyse and describe how literature depicts male domination by exploring the economic, social, political and psychological forces embedded within literature. Such critical work has changed the way literary texts are viewed and studied, and has expanded the subjects generally taught. The practice is widely used in Greek mythology.
Traditionally, feminist literary criticism has tried to examine older texts through a new lens, within the literary canon. Specific aims of feminist criticism include women's literary history, the recovery of older texts, the interpretation of women's writing so that it is not lost or overlooked from a male perspective, and resistance to the sexism inherent in the majority of mainstream literature. These aims were developed by Lisa Tuttle in the 1980s, with the purpose of analysing women writers and their writings from a woman's perspective, and of raising awareness of the sexual politics of language and style, and since then it has been widely adopted by feminist critics.
The history of feminist literary criticism is broad, ranging from the classic writings of nineteenth-century women writers such as George Eliot and Margaret Fuller to the sophisticated theoretical work of "third-wave" writers in women's studies and gender studies. Before the 1970s, in the first and second waves of feminism, feminist literary criticism was concerned with women's authorship and the representation of women's condition within literature, especially the depiction of fictional female characters. Furthermore, feminist literary criticism is concerned with the exclusion of women from the literary canon; theorists such as Lois Tyson suggest that the reason is that women writers' views are often not considered universal. Feminist criticism is also closely intertwined with the birth and development of queer studies.
Q. What do you mean by critical understanding? Write a note on Indian civilization from the perspective of critical understanding.
Critical Understanding
Critical understanding is a cerebral method of understanding; it is a way of thinking, and therefore does not depend on outward expression. Yet communication requires outward expression. Expressions of critical understanding can take many forms, including formal or informal speech, academic writing, creative prose or poetry, or visible results. It may take different forms in different cultures, and it must be considered when evaluating outcomes. In this context, "critical" does not mean negative; rather, it outlines a process of thinking. Critical understanding is used to prepare and define the process of understanding a complex problem or a difficult set of ideas. In general terms, it is a consequence of people beginning to reflect on their own capacity for reflection, on the world, and on their position in the world.
Indian Civilization: Critical Understanding and Identity
Gandhi is well known for his critique of modern Western society. He believed that modern colonialism was a branch of modern civilization. He explored 'civilization', which through his writings gave birth to modernity. The good of 'physical comfort' is placed in the service of the good of 'postmodernity', which is generally associated with 'physical welfare as the purpose of life and the wealth of human civilization'. Unsatisfied rights, machinery, the mechanization of every element of human life, the rejection of religious values and coercive authority are its foundations. Gandhi's critique of science and technology, colonialism, capitalism, consumerism and modern Western civilization is equally severe. Power, domination, colonialism and the market are all used for the propagation of the Western style of civilization. Gandhi opposed these on the basis of moral capacity of human beings.
At the same time, Gandhi criticized contemporary Indian culture for exploiting modern Western civilization and for moving away from the great historical Indian civilization. Here he criticizes some aspects of the Indian religious tradition. He believed that at one time the creative and dynamic culture had decayed, become sick and weak, and fallen prey to foreign invasion, the most recent of which was the British.
Civilization as a Concept
According to Matthew Arnold (1879), civilization is the humanization of men in society. The word denotes 'the advanced or improved state of human society'. Raymond Williams (1973), in his Keywords, characterizes civilization as 'a general consciousness of knowledge, a secular and progressive emphasis on human self-development, together with the feelings associated with its modernity'. According to the liberal thinker J. S. Mill, civilization means a 'thoroughly modern social process', which includes the growth of knowledge and physical comfort, the decline of superstition, the rise of advancing nations, the development of liberty, and also 'loss of freedom, the creation of artificial necessities, monotony, narrow mechanical understanding, inequality and hopeless poverty.' In anthropological discussions, the concept is related to barbarism and savagery, in contrast to evolution. When Europeans gained global dominance, civilization had a clear influence on the construction of the world. The European project was justified as a project of civilization. Civilization was credited as the cause of the distant conquests of European countries. Civilization was given new form by non-European elites, who used it to fuel colonial and nationalist conflicts. As noted in the previous section, the custodians of contemporary civilization include some clever and even good people who cannot write against it but rather endorse it.
NDIAN Intellectuals and the Renaissance
The modern way of life claims to be superior to traditional ways of life. It is believed that only modernity can achieve all material progress. It holds that, spiritually, the old Indian concept was the elimination of desire, the ultimate realization of a painless soul, and a pure consciousness for which all worldly prosperity must be renounced. Prevailing Western thought rejects these as trivial wishes and assists scientific development for the material welfare of humanity.
Social Reformers: Tradition and Reform
Tradition and reform are two characteristics necessary for any human community. Change in any culture is inevitable. At the same time, every civilization seeks ways of preserving, transmitting and reforming its tradition, maintaining its connection with the past and preparing for the future. In the nineteenth century, many Hindu leaders were able to struggle successfully against unacceptable social customs.
Q. Discuss the merits and demerits of colonialism in India.
Merits of Colonialism
Colonialism had many merits. First, its purpose was to enrich the mother country. Wealth from the colonies made the mother country prosperous. Second, colonialism helped the industrial development of the mother country. Raw materials were brought from its colonies to the mother country. Factories ran quite well and produced more, which were sent back to the colonies for sale. Third, the surplus population of the country was sent to various colonies. As a result, the burden on the mother country was reduced and it could cope better with poverty. Fourth, the mother country sent many powerful and talented people to various colonies. They became heads of administration or the army. They received their salaries from the colonies. Therefore, the mother country could govern its colonies well. Fifth, colonialism increased the prestige of the mother country. The more colonies a country had, the more respect it commanded from others. It also considered itself more powerful. Sixth, it increased unity among the people of the colonies. Coming under the rule of the mother country, the people of the colonies came to love one another and united. In due course, they fought against the mother country and became independent. The American War of Independence and India's struggle for freedom were bright examples of this. Seventh, colonialism assisted the promotion of education, agriculture, administration, industry, trade and commerce. In due course, these colonies became self-reliant. Eighth, colonialism taught the masses about 'nationalism', 'democracy' and 'constitutionalism'. In later times, these ideas helped the people of the colonies to attain independence. Finally, it greatly assisted missionaries, who taught English to people of various colonies. These educated people learned many new ideas and spread them among the local people.
Demerits of Colonialism
Colonialism had many demerits. First, it exploited the people of the colonies. The economic condition of the people of the colonies became precarious when raw materials were taken from their country to the mother country. Second, the mother country had to fight with local rulers. Due to constant wars, peace was lost in various colonies. Third, colonialism gave birth to an ugly tradition such as slavery. The mother country sold many of the people of its colonies in various parts of the world, for example in the slave markets of Lisbon, where slaves were sold as settlers. Fourth, colonialism created a wall between rulers and the ruled. The ruling race despised the colonial people and oppressed them. Finally, the people of various colonies rebelled against foreign rulers and waged long struggles against them. Ultimately, it compelled rulers to adopt the policy of 'divide and rule' in the colonies. The results of this policy were destructive. This colonialism created discord between Hindus and Muslims in India, and in the end divided the country into India and Pakistan. Thus, colonialism had many harmful effects. In fact, colonialism was a product of its time. It first appeared in Europe and later spread to various parts of the world. With the progress of time, colonialism disappeared from Asia and Africa, and colonies were freed from the grip of the mother country.
Q. Discuss the problems of Indian society.
To name a few, the major challenges facing India are: poverty, pollution, illiteracy, corruption, inequality, gender discrimination, terrorism, communalism, unemployment, regionalism, casteism, alcoholism, drug abuse, and violence against women. These challenges can be understood well if discussed systematically. They can be separated on the basis of the sections of society they affect most, and then the challenges that affect society as a whole can be addressed.
Challenges Faced by Children
1. Child Labour
A) Despite social reforms, child labour continues to flourish in India. More than 10 million children work in labour-intensive sectors of our country. Poverty and an inadequate education system push children into the grip of child labour. B) In many cases, parents force their children to work to support their families financially. For homeless or abandoned children, this is also the only way to survive. C) Spreading awareness, enacting and effectively implementing stricter laws, sending more children to school, and discouraging people from employing children in houses, shops, factories and so on are necessary measures.
2. Malnutrition
A) India slipped to 101st place among 116 countries in the Global Hunger Index (GHI) 2021, from 94th in 2020, and is behind its neighbours Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal. B) More than 3.3 million children in India are malnourished, and more than half of them fall into the severely malnourished category, with Maharashtra, Bihar and Gujarat among the worst. More than one-third of children under five suffer from stunting and wasting, and 40% of children aged one to four are anaemic. C) While schools remained closed for long periods due to the pandemic, services such as the ICDS (Integrated Child Development Scheme) and mid-day meals in schools became irregular. D) According to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5), every third child still suffers from chronic malnutrition, and every fifth child is severely wasted.
3. Illiteracy
A) Neglect of Indian languages: In many cases, standard education is not available in local Indian languages. Overemphasis on English as the medium of instruction alienates students from poor, rural and tribal backgrounds. B) Financial constraints: Under the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, children are provided free education up to the age of 14, but those outside the coverage of the Right to Education (RTE) remain excluded. C) High dropout rates: This is caused by several factors such as poverty, lack of toilets, long distances to schools, child marriage, patriarchal mindsets, and cultural factors. D) Teacher standards: A shortage of trained and skilled teachers is another problem faced by our primary education system.
4. Child Trafficking
A) This is a crime that exploits girls and boys for many purposes, including forced labour and sexual exploitation. It is associated with criminal activity and corruption. When trafficking occurs, children are often victims of supply for commercial sexual exploitation or labour, such as domestic service, factory work, agriculture and mining. B) Indian law has no legal definition of child trafficking. The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act 1956 relates only to the trafficking of minors for prostitution. However, other laws exist that may help in combating child trafficking: the Indian Penal Code, the Juvenile Justice Act 2000, the Andhra Pradesh Devadasis (Prohibition of Dedication) Act 1988, the Bombay Prevention of Beggary Act, and others. Article 23(1) of the Indian Constitution contains a specific provision prohibiting trafficking and forced labour.
5. Root Causes of Juvenile Delinquency
A) Exposure to violent media: Consuming material such as murder and violence can negatively affect the minds of adolescents. B) Trauma: Any childhood or adolescent traumatic event can have a negative impact on the mind. C) Lack of knowledge: Committing crimes unknowingly. D) Lack of parental supervision.
Q. What are the foundations of critical understanding of the Indian state? Discuss.
Five important features may help us understand modern India: A) its diversity, B) the depth of its culture, C) India as a land of minorities, D) its future depends on the exchange between two worlds, E) in urban and rural India, poverty, spirituality and modernity coexist and live together.
Many people in the Western world regard India as a constant and distant [group] of people and poverty, a mixture of the exotic and the pitiful. This misconception, popularized through years of media stereotyping, obscures reality. In fact, India is a living society whose internal dynamism is becoming increasingly powerful and whose influence on the world, both direct and indirect, is growing. Its importance lies not only in its size, with about 930 million people, or 15 percent of the world's population, but also in the questions raised by the paths India chooses in domestic and foreign policy. This state is the largest functioning democracy, with regular and freely contested elections. Thus, is democracy a suitable system of government for a world in which a large number of comparatively poor people, where democracy, as we understand it, is a highly vulnerable political species, especially in Third World countries?
The first feature to keep in mind when thinking about India is its diversity. It is a country with 15 official languages, more than 300 smaller languages and about 3,000 dialects. Twenty-four languages each have more than one million speakers. Often Indians cannot understand one another and frequently use English as a link language or administrative language. But language is not the only diversity. A second feature is the depth of its culture, which contrasts with the novelty of the state in its present form. India has more than 4,000 years of philosophical and cultural development, going back to the early Aryan civilization. Since then, Hindu, Buddhist, Christian, Islamic, Sikh and other influences have left deep marks on society. Every Indian, even the poorest and most illiterate, can recount myths and history, a sense of the heritage of a great civilization that is extraordinarily broad. Yet until independence in 1947 there was no India as we know it. Before that there were various divided (some very large) regions. Many of these were immersed in the British Indian Empire, which combined direct British rule with the supervision of many regions governed by traditional princes and local rulers or maharajas.
The third feature is that India is a land of minorities. About 80 percent of the population is Hindu. But Hinduism is a mixture of pluralistic beliefs and forms, often containing contradictory elements. An additional 12 percent are Muslims, deeply aware of their Islamic beliefs. Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Marathi, Tamil, Telugu, Punjabi and other languages create their own minorities. The number of tribal and neo-tribal people is about 40 million. No political contestant can succeed in a political office without awareness of these communities, and as a result, both domestic and foreign policy are conditioned by them. A fourth feature of modern India is, broadly speaking, that its future depends on the exchange between two worlds: the cities of India, where 20 percent of the population lives, and rural India, where the rest of the population lives in about 600,000 villages. Urban India is the India of modern industry, national politics and foreign policy, government planning, national media, leading universities, business, the armed forces, and science and technology. Its best products are often as good as the best in the world, and its orientation is cosmopolitan. Rural India is the India of a much older pattern, where tradition is the main dynamic of society, where outsiders come and go but life goes on, often without notable change. When both Indias effectively form a network, India succeeds, as in the expansion of education, the reduction of illiteracy, the extension of life expectancy, the introduction of some basic health services, and the livelihood of a democratic political system. When they fail to connect effectively, India faces problems such as population control and unemployment. For the nation to realize its full potential, the relationship between those two Indias must be extended and strengthened.
We must remember that poverty, spirituality and modernity coexist and live together in India, without the contradictory effects suggested by the Western viewpoint. This is the essence of Indian spirituality, which enables even the most deprived to endure poverty, while modernity offers the possibility of improvement.
This spirit is a mixture of many small personal outlooks and inspirations, which is the distinctive character of modern India and offers the best hope for the nation and its people.