The Evolution of the New School Movement

The New School Movement: Historical Foundations

At the end of the 19th century in the U.S. and Europe:

• New methods were tested.
• Didactic resources were designed.
• New programs and textbooks were developed.

After the war, education was viewed as a means to avoid future barbarism. In 1921, the Congress of Calais adopted 30 principles; however, these did not penetrate society deeply because politicians sought to distance themselves from the efforts of pedagogues and educators.

Background and Influences

The movement was shaped by several traditions:

• Pedagogical tradition: Basedow and Rousseau.
• Medical currents: Messmer.
• Drill and structure: Montessori, Decroly, Itard, and Séguin.
• American influence (1860–1900): Dewey and Herbartian theories.

Additionally, the Project System became popular after 1918, emphasizing that teachers should channel individual student energies toward concrete goals.

Key Precursors

Tolstoy

Tolstoy intended to restore the school to the people. His school focused on freedom: no lessons, no homework, and students sat where they wanted. He believed the best method of teaching was that which the students discovered themselves. While pedagogically innovative, his small-scale experiment was considered a failure.

Robin

Robin focused on physical education for military purposes, incorporating polytechnic education and productive manual labor. He organized workshops where students spent long hours, believing it easier to arouse interest in professional hobbies. His school featured outdoor classes, hygiene, and co-education, including battalion training exercises for the hypothetical defense of the homeland.

Ellen Key

Ellen Key, who never attended formal school, advocated for domestic freedom. Her influential work, The Century of the Child, was heavily influenced by Spencerian sociology. She argued that the "race is everything," suggesting that marriage should be based on science to ensure valuable procreation, while prohibiting those with physical, intellectual, or moral defects—a view that recalls Malthusian theses and later atrocities.

Despite these controversial views, Key made significant contributions by arguing that the best school is a quiet, sunny home. She was indignant at kindergartens, claiming they quenched the desire for knowledge, paralyzed the mind, and killed feeling. She believed children should be accustomed to hard beds, simple food, and light clothing, and that they should learn to read well while pursuing other knowledge through self-education.