19th Century Transformations in Politics and Thought
Historical Context and Political Upheaval
The liberal-bourgeois revolutions of the first half of the nineteenth century were prolonged and became laden with new meanings. Struggles and social upheavals characteristic of the second half of this century (e.g., the Paris Commune of 1871) saw the triumph of organized labor. This transforming anger within the liberal state announced what would become the 20th century.
After Napoleon was defeated and the Congress of Vienna was held, Germany was not yet a single state. Instead, a society of nations was composed of 38 states, most notably Austria and Prussia, which took the lead in the customs union or Zollverein—a stage prior to German unification and the rise of Bismarck. In 1871, the territory was finally unified after defeating its opponent, Austria. The Second Reich was proclaimed, becoming hegemonic during the Second Industrial Revolution (steel, electricity, etc.). In Germany, the invention of the combustion engine and other modern projects emerged from German universities.
Scientific Progress and Evolutionary Theory
The nineteenth century was a period of consolidation for the physical sciences, where scientific specialty lines were unified. The discovery of connections between chemical phenomena, light, electricity, and magnetism highlighted the interrelationships affecting electrostatics, magnetism, and chemistry. This led to practical consequences such as the electric motor, generator, and electrolysis, as well as theoretical advancements like electromagnetic theory and electrochemical theory.
Undoubtedly, the idea that changed the thinking of the nineteenth century was the theory of evolution by Charles Darwin. This concept of evolution transferred from the field of biology to be applied to other fields, including linguistics, social philosophy, ethics, and anthropology.
The Evolution of Philosophy: From Hegel to Marx
In the first third of the century, German idealism dominated. After Hegel's death, an anti-idealistic and anti-metaphysical reaction occurred, marking the rest of the century. The interpretation of Hegel's arguments regarding religion and state law among his disciples led to two trends: the Right Hegelians and the Left Hegelians.
Within the context of the latter, Ludwig Feuerbach resolved theology into anthropology, the infinite into the finite, and the being of God into the being of man. Linked to the Left Hegelians was Karl Marx, one of the most important philosophical figures whose influence went beyond philosophy to the origin of a major mass movement: socialism.
Positivism and Schopenhauer's Pessimism
Despite the repercussions of Hegel, the idea extended that philosophy (as embodied in Hegel) was pure speculation—mental constructions entirely removed from reality. The European mind turned toward the conventional science model, which was transferred to philosophy, history, and biology, listed as outstanding examples of know-how (positivism).
Arthur Schopenhauer, an early critic of Hegelianism, argued that the world, as a phenomenon, is a representation formed in the manner of space, time, and chance. Reality, for him, is the will. The will is constant pain; it is both desiring and not wanting anything ever. This dissatisfaction makes the world inherently bad, leading to Schopenhauer's pessimism.