Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Social sciences for Baccalaureate

The Distortion of the System: Patronage and Electoral Corruption

The theoretical model was not matched by political practice. The constitutional operation was deliberately adulterated by its own supporters from the very first elections. Governments were not changed or supported by the courts, but by a very different mechanism.

The Mechanism of Power Relay

When a party lacked experienced management, or when political leaders saw a need for a relay in the enjoyment of power, the Crown suggested the appointment of a new government. The new president was always the party leader who had been in opposition; they received their appointment alongside a decree dissolving Parliament and calling for new elections.

Election Fabrication and Control

The newly...

The Second Spanish Republic (April 14, 1931)

Causes of the Republic

The dictatorship lost the support of various social sectors, forcing Primo de Rivera to resign. The monarchy and King Alfonso XIII lost prestige due to their collaboration with the dictatorship. Furthermore, monarchist supporters were disorganized, the dictatorship failed to resolve workers' claims, and nationalist movements were gaining strength.

The social situation was problematic, characterized by high illiteracy rates and poor working and living conditions. The 1929 stock market crash negatively impacted Spain, leading to stagnant investment, economic stagnation, and rising prices. The Republic was born in difficult circumstances, coinciding with the 1929 economic crisis,...

The Restoration Party System

The party system was created by Cánovas del Castillo, following the English model. He led the Conservative Party, heir to the Moderates, and invited Sagasta to lead the Liberal Party, the heir to the Progressives. Socially, both parties represented the interests of very similar groups linked to the bourgeoisie. However, the Conservatives were more closely related to the agrarian oligarchy, the defense of clericalism, and tradition. In contrast, the Liberals represented advocates of the liberal tradition, defending universal suffrage, freedom, and the separation of church and state.

Their agreed alternation of power (the Turno Pacífico) allowed for legislative advancement during the period while avoiding recourse...

Adam Smith and Laissez-Faire Economics

Smith defined the nation's wealth not as a fixed landmark, but derived from the open market, driven by individual self-interest and competition.

Economic Liberalism: Conditions for Growth

Economic liberalism promotes growth and prosperity through specific mechanisms, primarily focusing on minimizing government intervention and maximizing individual economic freedom.

Key tenets of economic liberalism include:

• Removal of Regulations: Granting freedom to invest and operate without excessive governmental limits.
• Market Mechanisms: Reliance on free competition, the law of supply and demand, and market evolution.
• Labor Freedom: Freedom of employment, including conditions of recruitment and hours of work.
• Limiting the

Bolívar Family Origins

The name Bolívar is of Basque origin. The Bolívar family came from a village called La Puebla de Bolívar in Vizcaya (Basque Country), Spain.

First Bolívar in Venezuela

The first of the Bolívars to arrive in Venezuela, along with his son, came to Caracas 30 years after the city's founding, around 1589. To distinguish them, they were known as Simón de Bolívar the Elder and Simón de Bolívar the Younger.

Simón de Bolívar the Elder

Bolívar the Elder stood out as a royal accountant, by special privilege of King Philip II, and as keeper of the treasury. He was also attorney general for the cities of Caracas, Coro, Trujillo, Barquisimeto, Carora, El Tocuyo, and Maracaibo. He traveled to the Spanish court between 1590...

Heliocentric Theory

The heliocentric theory, illustrated in Andreas Cellarius's Harmonia Macrocosmica (1708), posits that the Earth and other planets revolve around the Sun. This concept, known as a heliocentric universe, gained prominence in the modern era through the work of Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei.

Galileo, using simple distance measurements between the Earth and the Sun, recognized the Sun's significantly larger size compared to Earth. This observation echoed earlier suggestions by Aristarchus, who proposed that the Earth revolved around the Sun, challenging the prevailing geocentric theory of Ptolemy and Hipparchus. The geocentric model, deeply rooted in an anthropocentric worldview, held sway for centuries.

Over a millennium later,...

The Rise of Capitalism and Socialism

Capitalism was a dominant system. With the end of the Second World War, capitalism emerged as the leading force.

Socialism designates those theories and policies that advocate for a political and economic system based on the socialization of production systems and state control, whether partial or complete. The aim of socialists is to create a classless society, free from the divide between rich and poor.

The Three Worlds Model

The terms 1st, 2nd, and 3rd world were used to categorize nations into three broad areas, though focus primarily remained on the first and third.

1st Group: Industrialized Nations

This group included the United States, Canada, Japan, France, Germany, England, and Italy. They were considered...

Nietzsche's Historical and Philosophical Context

The Industrial Revolution and Political Decline

The 19th-century Industrial Revolution marked a fundamental shift from the agricultural to the industrial sector, resulting in a significant increase in the workforce and the wealth accumulation of a new class: the bourgeoisie.

These changes fueled the development of the labor movement and liberal capitalism, which amplified the aspirations and political demands of the bourgeoisie. These demands crystallized during the century in democratic systems endowed with constitutions. Nietzsche, however, viewed these systems as a symptom of decline, arguing that the idea of equality sustained uniformed individuals and prevented the emergence of critical, autonomous,...

The Philosophy of José Ortega y Gasset

José Ortega y Gasset (1883-1955), a prominent Spanish writer, essayist, and thinker, was born in Madrid. He held a doctorate in philosophy and served as a lecturer in metaphysics. His understanding of the history of philosophy emphasized a profound dialogue with classical Greek thought, alongside a critical engagement with contemporary German philosophy.

His extensive work is typically divided into three distinct periods:

• The Objectivist Period: Characterized by his time in Germany, focusing on objective reality.
• The Perspectivist Period: Where he posited that human beings apprehend the world from a specific, unique perspective, revealing a variety of facets.
• The Ratio-Vitalist Period: His most mature phase,

Sociolinguistics

Sociolinguistics examines language use influenced by social context, including dialects and language contact situations.

Multilingualism and Language Contact

Multilingualism refers to the use of more than one language in a territory or by an individual. Language contact occurs when two or more languages coexist within a region.

Bilingualism

Bilingualism is the minimal expression of language contact, involving two languages. It can be:

• Individual: Two languages used by one person, which can be active (spoken and written) or passive (understood). It can be symmetric (both languages equally known) or asymmetric (one language dominant). It can be instrumental (practical use) or integrative (community integration).
• Territorial: Two linguistic