Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Religion for Secondary education

No-Self

• Central concept: Buddha denies the existence of a self that is eternal or self-sustained.

• Biggest illusion: Believing we truly know our "self".

• Two bases for denying the eternal self:

  1. Impermanence

     • All entities in the world are impermanent in two ways:

       1. They cease to exist.

       2. They constantly change.

  2. Dependent Origination

     • This framework forms the basis for Buddhists' denial of a "self".

     • All things are products of infinite chains of causality. Nothing is self-sustaining; therefore, nothing has a self.

       • This concept relates to early Indian logic principles of cause and effect.

Reincarnation/Nirvana

• Reincarnation is a cycle of rebirth.

• This concept predates Buddhism, existing long before in Indian culture.

• Different views exist on the mechanisms behind this

Religious Situation in Palestine During the Time of Jesus

Faith:

• Yavhé-faith: Belief in one true God (Creator of Heaven and Earth).
• Messianic hope: Expectation of a liberator to free the Jews.
• Fidelity to the law: Faithfulness to the commandments given to Moses.

Practices

The most important obligations of the Jews were:

• Complying with the Law of Moses.
• Praying morning, noon, and night.
• Giving alms to the needy and to the Temple.

Events

• Sabbath (Saturday): The holy day of rest. No work was permitted. People went to the synagogue to pray. It began at the first star on Friday and ended at sunset on Saturday.
• Passover (Easter): Commemorated the deliverance from Egypt.
• Pentecost: Celebrated 50 days after Passover, remembering the covenant at Mount Sinai when

Catholic Reformation and Counter-Reformation

Counter-Reformation

This is also called the Catholic Reformation, promoted by the Catholic Church in response to the doctrine of Luther and the Catholic reformers. The Council of Trent laid the doctrinal foundations of Catholicism.

Reformation

The renovation of the church did not only appear with Luther. It had already begun within the church, but it would not be fully realized until the Council of Trent. One of the most important factors of the Reformation was:

Cisneros and the Spanish Reformation

The situation in Spain in the late fifteenth century was very different from the rest of Europe. The Reconquista struggle had created a warm and almost fanatic atmosphere, fighting Muslims and Jews. The union...

Mormons

Official Name

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

Founder

Joseph Smith

Origin

New York, USA, 1830

Followers

Approximately 11 million worldwide, with 5 million in the USA

Interesting Facts

• The founder, Joseph Smith, was lynched by a mob and accused of heresy and polygamy.
• Until 1978, black individuals were not permitted in the hierarchy.
• According to their beliefs, the advent of faith in America occurred in Chile thousands of years ago.

Beliefs

• They do not believe in the Holy Trinity or that Christ is God incarnate.
• They consider the Bible secondary to the Book of Mormon, which they view as a kind of Third Testament.
• The Book of Mormon, revealed to Joseph Smith, contains the history of the children of Nephi, a Hebrew believed to have been

The Medieval Church: Structure and Reform

Monastic Life in the Middle Ages

Monastic life during this period was significantly marked by:

• The Benedictine Reform (Cluny).
• The emergence of new orders, such as the Cistercians.

The Cistercian Order

The Cistercians sought a return to the simplicity of life and evangelical poverty. Monasteries were founded following these principles, emphasizing renewal and strict adherence to the rule.

Divisions within Christianity

The Great Schism brought about a fundamental division among Christians:

• Western or Roman Catholic Christians: Who recognize the Pope as the visible head of the Church.
• Eastern or Orthodox Christians: Who follow a more collegial structure of leadership.

The Investiture Controversy

This conflict arose...

The Protestant Reformation

The Spiritual Crisis of the Church

At the end of the Middle Ages, people began to question the practices of the Church, including:

• The luxurious lifestyles of the high clergy.
• The lack of culture and weakening of moral standards of the clergy, who set a bad example.
• The buying and selling of ecclesiastical positions for personal economic benefit.
• The selling of papal bulls and indulgences, which made the Church wealthy under the pretense of pardoning sins and granting access to heaven.

The Lutheran Reformation

In 1517, Martin Luther condemned the wealth of the Church, denied the value of indulgences, and advocated a new religion based on:

• Salvation through faith: Only faith in God could lead to eternal salvation, regardless

The Four Passing Sights

These four observations profoundly influenced Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) and led him to renounce his princely life:

1. An Old Man: Weak and frail, symbolizing the inevitability of aging.
2. A Sick Man: Representing disease and suffering.
3. A Corpse on a Funeral Pyre: This sight was a shock, awakening him to the realization that life is not a continuous event and death is certain.
4. A Holy Man (Ascetic): This fourth sight first awakened him to other possibilities and the potential for an escape from suffering.

Li

A key concept in Confucianism, often translated as propriety, ritual, or correct conduct.

Ch’i (Qi)

Vital energy flowing through matter and movement. This energy is intrinsically linked to the universe.

Skanda (Hindu God

Medieval Culture and Theocentrism

Medieval culture was deeply religious. The literature, philosophy, and arts of the period reflect a theocentric mentality, meaning God was at the center of all things.

The Secular Clergy

The secular clergy consisted of members of the Church integrated into society who performed pastoral functions:

• Parish Management: Priests were in direct contact with the faithful via parishes.
• High Clergy: Bishops managed dioceses (groups of parishes), while archbishops governed archdioceses (groups of dioceses).

The Regular Clergy

The regular clergy consisted of individuals living in religious communities:

• Monastic Orders: Monks lived in isolated monasteries in rural areas.
  • Order of Cluny: Spread throughout Europe in the 11th century.

Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophy, particularly in his later years, was marked by profound insights and a delicate, often challenging, intellectual journey. His thought was profoundly shaped by three key influences:

• The pessimistic philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer.
• His deep appreciation for classical Greek culture.
• The vibrant spirit of the Italian Renaissance.

Nietzsche's philosophy is characterized by vitalism and irrationalism, which deny the primacy of reason.

Nietzsche's Core Influences and Philosophy

The Apollonian, the Dionysian, and Socrates' Influence

Reason and its vehicle of expression (language) cannot fully capture the joy of living life, which Nietzsche believes is driven by the will to power – a blind desire to persist in reality....

Institutions and Governance in Castile

• Inquisition: An institution introduced in Castile in 1478 by the Catholic Monarchs to monitor Catholic orthodoxy among converts, serving as the primary tool for achieving religious unity.
• Aldermen: Royal officials who presided over the council to exercise direct control over cities.
• Holy Brotherhood: A body established in 1476 responsible for prosecuting criminals and ensuring order in the Kingdom of Castile.
• Tips (Advisers): A system consisting of royal advisers, typically lawyers, chosen by the king.
• Real Hearing: A court charged with ensuring control over justice and increasing its effectiveness.
• Guadalupe Arbitration Case: A 1486 decision by King Ferdinand of Aragon to stop peasant unrest in Catalonia by