Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Psychology and sociology for University

Research Process Stages

Beginning: Starting point: we wish to know the assignment, project, or real need. We start our role as researchers.

Choosing the Topic

We have to choose the topic(s). Once decided, it determines our investigation.

General Problem

Our research will be focused on...

Literature Review

What has been said before our time? (Theoretical & practical) “State of the matter.”

Limiting the Problem: Questions and Hypothesis

• Identify the problem.
• Take into account the methodology (it indicates the activities and techniques we will develop to achieve our goal we want to follow).

Once we have identified the problem, we must think about our objectives.

Hypothesis

What we think will happen in our investigation. (They are created by linking...

Emergence of Socio-Moral Emotions

In children under 2 years, expressions of pride and shame appear in response to success and failure when solving tasks.

Lewis et al. found that children experience pride in success if a task is difficult, and shame at failure if the task is easy. This indicates that children under 2 years are capable of self-evaluation and that pride and shame are distinct from simple joy or sadness.

We also observe differential patterns between shame and guilt, as the latter involves an intention to repair.

Mechanisms of Socio-Moral Emotion Genesis

• Ego Development: The relationship between ego development and the emergence of emotions.
• Internalization: The internalization of caregiver approval and disapproval.
• Social Referencing:

What is Research?

Research is the intentional search for knowledge or solutions to scientific problems. The scientific method shows the way to journey through that investigation, and the techniques needed provide a way to navigate it. It is characterized by being reflective, systematic, and methodical. It is developed through a process.

Importance of Research

Research becomes important because it helps to solve social problems, build new theories, etc.

Evaluating Research Importance

Here are three criteria for evaluating the potential importance of research:

• Convenience: How convenient is the research?
• Social Relevance: What is its importance to society? Who will benefit from the research results?
• Practical Implications: Does it solve real problems?

Human Development: Progress and Well-being

Human development focuses directly on the progress of life and well-being; it is an evaluation of life. Human development is linked to strengthening specific skills related to the whole range of things a person can be and do in life. This involves the possibility for all people to increase their human potential fully and utilize that capacity in all areas—cultural, economic, and political—that is, in capacity-building.

Human development is about freedom to live as one likes.

Human development has to do with the expression of civil liberties and is associated with the possibility that all individuals are subjects and beneficiaries of development; that is, they are constituted as subjects.

Modifications

Programs to Improve Intelligence

In modern psychology, intelligence remains a complex construct consisting of a set of mental processes and behavioral performances.

Origins of Programs to Improve Intelligence

• Social Studies
• Educational Studies
• Scientific Studies

Programs that teach people how to think assume that individuals differ in their intellectual potential. These differences are mainly due to skill factors and are, therefore, subject to change and improvement through training.

Major Programs to Improve Intelligence

Instrumental Enrichment Program (PEI)

The Instrumental Enrichment Program (PEI) (Feuerstein, 1980) is based on the theories of structural cognitive modifiability and mediated learning. It stands out for defining intelligence as a process...

Social Deviance and Societal Norms

Social deviance is any behavior that deviates from the standards generally accepted by society. Social deviance is not necessarily a crime, as it refers specifically to the non-observance of social norms. In other words, these are acts that deviate from the rules imposed by a given society.

Human social life is governed by standards or rules that define certain types of behavior as appropriate in certain contexts. Social deviance is the result of human life in society; wherever there are laws, rules, or standards, there is potential for the development of deviation.

The Concept of Anomie

In social studies, anomie refers to the inability of the social structure to provide certain individuals with the means necessary...

The Human Being as a Subject of Education

The fundamental question, "Is education possible?" elicits many answers, which can be reduced to two primary aspects of reflection:

• The first examines the basis of behavior and focuses on biological determinants.
• The second explores the role of the individual's own activity and the influence of the environment in shaping personality.

Scientific Anthropology: Biological Foundations

Scientific Anthropology addresses the first question, studying the humanization process from its origins to the formation of the human species.

Pedagogical Anthropology: The Humanization Process

Pedagogical Anthropology, meanwhile, analyzes the events that lead an individual to become a human being, a process known as humanization....

Contributions to Neuroscience and Psychopathology

Neuroscience: Understanding the Nervous System

Neuroscience focuses on understanding the nervous system, particularly the brain. The Central Nervous System (CNS) processes information received from sensory organs and initiates appropriate reactions. It organizes relevant data, eliminates irrelevant input, checks memory banks for context, and executes the correct response.

Spinal Cord Function

The spinal cord's main function is to facilitate the transmission of messages to and from the brain. The brain utilizes neurons to control thoughts and actions, transmitting information throughout the nervous system.

Neuronal Communication

• The space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another is

Cognitive and Intellectual Milestones

• 1. Post-formal dialectic development implies: Synthesis of relativism and the...
• 3. A decrease in intelligence occurs at age: 50 years.
• 6. During middle adulthood, there is: An increase in crystallized intelligence.
• 11. In old age, there is: A decline in intellectual performance.
• 13. Intelligence increases until: 50 years.
• 16. Formal operations allow: Hypothetical reasoning.
• 23. Formal operations are: A style of reasoning.
• 24. The hydraulic fluid intelligence:
• 28. Formal intelligence is achieved due to: Reflective abstraction.

Adolescence, Puberty, and Physical Changes

• 4. Teenage sexual maturity is acquired when: It arrives at menarche.
• 9. Factors regulating the onset of puberty include: Genetic factors, a certain

Defining Clinical Criminology

Clinical criminology is the science of social and criminal behavior, based on the in-depth observation and analysis of individual cases. Funke Ruiz suggests that a simple enumeration of background factors is insufficient for determining an offender's character.

The Iter Criminis and Character Determination

Within the iter criminis, four distinct phases are identified: mitigated consent, consent made, the state of danger, and the way to act.

Theories of Criminal Personality

Etienne de Greff developed a theory of criminal personality, identifying four key features to reach a criminological diagnosis: aggressiveness, egocentricity, lack of foresight, and emotional indifference. Similarly, Pinatel recognizes four core traits...