Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Psychology and sociology for University

Ethics

Ethics refer to the study of moral principles or values that determine whether actions are right or wrong and outcomes are good or bad.

Three Ethical Principles

Utilitarianism: Greatest good for the greatest number of people

Individual Rights: Fundamental entitlements in society

Distributive Justice: People who are similar should receive similar benefits

Influences on Ethical Conduct

• Moral intensity

• degree that issue demands ethical principles

• Ethical sensitivity

• ability to recognize the presence and determine the relative importance of an ethical issue

• Situational influences

• competitive pressures and other conditions affect ethical behavior

Four Factors that Directly Influence Individual Behavior and Performance (MARS)

Motivation:

• Internal

Stream-of-Consciousness Fiction

The theories of Freud, Bergson, and James, along with the technologies of mass culture, inevitably led to the development of new writing techniques. James Joyce and Virginia Woolf are, along with the American novelist William Faulkner, the greatest practitioners of stream-of-consciousness fiction.

Key Narrative Techniques

Their novels utilize many techniques, but the most important are:

• Direct interior monologue: Refers to the direct presentation of a character’s stream of consciousness without the guiding presence of an author or narrator. The most famous example is Molly Bloom’s monologue in Joyce’s Ulysses, where we enter directly into Molly’s thoughts without any external point of view.
• Indirect interior

Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986)

Social Cognitive Theory is an interpersonal theory that covers determinants of behavior and processes of behavior change. It posits that behavior, cognitive, personal, and environmental factors interact.

Key Concepts:

• Reciprocal Determinism: Behavior is influenced by and influences personal factors and the environment.
• Personal Factors:
  • Outcome Expectancies: Anticipated effects of a behavior (physical, social, self-evaluative).
  • Self-Efficacy: Belief in one's ability in specific situations (magnitude, strength, generality).
• Environmental Factors: Social and physical conditions.

Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991)

This theory suggests that attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control influence...

Key Phases in the Research Process

1. Conceptual Phase

In this initial stage, we determine the specific topic of research. This involves:

• Formulating the initial question and conception.
• Defining the objectives of the investigation.
• Writing the theoretical framework.

2. Design Phase

During this phase, we select a methodology based on the purpose and scope of the research:

• Purpose: Basic or applied research.
• Temporal Scope: Sectional or longitudinal (retrospective, prospective, panel, and tendency).
• Depth: Exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory.
• Sources of Information: Primary, secondary, or combined.
• Character: Qualitative (seeking to discover sense and meanings) or quantitative (focusing on objective aspects, quantification, and explanation).
• Nature:

Reduction Semantics and Word Generalization

Reduction semantics refers to how children initially connect the few words they know to specific meanings. This involves using a word in a narrower sense, such as calling only their own pet "dog." Later, semantic extension or generalization occurs, where the same name is applied to a series of objects with similar shapes, such as calling every round object a "ball" or everything with wheels a "car."

Identifying Emotional Distress and Hearing Issues

When should one suspect severe emotional distress or hearing problems in children? If a baby does not respond to babbling or words by the age of one, they must undergo a hearing test. Furthermore, an unwillingness to communicate at an appropriate age can be...

Effects of Sexual Abuse

Sexual abuse poses significant emotional risks for victims. These reactions are often stronger when the aggressor is a family member or when the abuse occurs repeatedly, making the victim feel guilty for not being able to prevent it.

Gender Differences in Victim Reactions

Boys may be more likely to become perpetrators in the future, while girls tend to exhibit more anxiety-depressive reactions.

Initial Effects (Within Two Years of the Abuse)

1. Towards the offender and/or relatives: Mistrust, fear, hostility, running away, and antisocial behavior.
2. Towards oneself: Shame, guilt, and low self-esteem.
3. Emotional state: Anxiety, anger, and depression.
4. Sexuality: Excessive curiosity, sexual precocity, and child prostitution.
5. Other issues:

Defining Sexual Abuse Through Two Major Concepts

Sexual abuse is fundamentally understood through two primary lenses:

• Coercion: The use of physical force, pressure, or deception, regardless of the offender's age.
• Age Difference: The age gap between the perpetrator and the victim prevents freedom of choice. This creates a power imbalance that vitiates any possibility of an egalitarian relationship.

Operational Definition of Sexual Abuse

Physical Conduct

• Rape: Penetration of the vagina, anus, or mouth with any object without the consent of the person.
• Digital Penetration: Insertion of a finger into the vagina or anus.
• Exposure: Showing sexual organs in an inappropriate manner.
• Intercourse: Anal or vaginal intercourse.
• Caress: Touching or fondling the genitals

Attachment Theory: Key Authors and Concepts

Key authors in attachment theory include John Bowlby, Mary Ainsworth, and Mary Main.

John Bowlby's Attachment Theory

Bowlby posited attachment as a fundamental human need, essential for survival yet relatively independent of other basic needs. Attachment is a biologically based motivational system that ensures an infant's proximity to a specific, preferred human being.

It is structured through interactive experiences, where communication precedes symbolic representation, evolving into affective contact. The attachment bond is directed towards a specific, differentiated, and preferred person. It seeks proximity and contact, generating anxiety when this desire is threatened.

The attachment system activates...

Culture and Socialization

Culture: When using the term "culture" in everyday conversation, it is generally considered equivalent to the higher aspects of the mind, like art, literature, music, and painting. Sociologists' use of the term includes such activities, but also others. Culture has to do with the lifestyles of members of a society or of groups within it. This includes dress, marriage customs and family life, work patterns, religious ceremonies, and pastimes.

"Culture" is conceptually distinct from "society," but there is a close relationship between both concepts. A society is a system of relationships that bind individuals. No culture could exist without society, but equally, there can be a society devoid of culture. Without culture,...