Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Psychology and sociology for Other courses

Standard Academic Abbreviations and Citation Terms

A, AA:

Author, authors.

V V. AA:

Several authors.

Art, cit:

Article cited.

Ca.:

Circa (About, around).

Cf., Cf.:

Confer (Compare).

Al., Et al.:

Et alii (And collaborators/others).

Dir:

Director, directed.

ed., eds.:

Edition, editor(s).

fl.:

Floruit (Flourished).

ibid.:

Ibidem (In the same place).

idem:

The same.

loc. cit.:

Loco citato (In the location cited).

m:

Mortuus (Dead).

n:

Natus (Born).

OC:

Opera Omnia (Complete works).

op. cit.:

Opere citato (In the work cited).

PASS:

Passim (In diverse places).

pseud:

Pseudonym.

suppl:

Supplement.

Research Tools and Data Collection Methods

Minimum Criteria for Effective Question Design

These criteria ensure the quality and reliability of responses from participants:

1. The question is necessary

Cognitive Development Schemes (Item 5)

Piaget's Cognitive Development Model

Sensorimotor Stage (0–24 Months)

This stage is characterized by the child learning through sensory input and motor activity. The sub-stages are:

• Sub-stage 1: 0–1 month
• Sub-stage 2: 1–4 months
• Sub-stage 3: 4–8 months
• Sub-stage 4: 8–12 months
• Sub-stage 5: 12–18 months
• Sub-stage 6: 18–24 months

Preoperational Stage (2–7 Years)

This stage is divided into two phases:

• Symbolic and Preconceptual Thinking: 2–4 years
• Intuitive Thinking: 4–7 years

Criticisms of Piaget's Model

Critics argue that Piaget's model:

• Gave little attention to content, process knowledge, and internal procedures handled by the individual.
• Tended to focus excessively on deficits or disability rather

Emotions

Types of Affection

Emotion

• Strong, immediate, and short-lived emotional reactions.
• Clear organ involvement.
• Relatively standardized behavioral response.

Feeling

• Diffuse, softer, and durable affective reactions.
• Mild organic and behavioral reaction.

Dimensions of Emotions

• Tone: How the emotion is experienced (positive-negative, pleasant-unpleasant).
• Intensity: Degree of physiological arousal (blushing, trembling), personal experience (feeling a strong emotion), and later behavior (more or less strong reaction).
• Duration: Short or long-lasting.

Biological or Mental Issue?

• Zajonc: Emotions are biological processes, preceding or following cognition but distinctly different.
• Lazarus-Ellis-Beck: Emotion is post-cognitive. Interpretation of the situation

1. Defining Social Sciences and Their Importance

Social Sciences are intellectual disciplines that study human beings as social members of society using the scientific method. They include subjects such as Geography, History, Sociology, Anthropology, Economics, Demography, Law, Political Science, and Art History.

Their knowledge is provisional rather than definitive, and absolute objectivity is impossible. However, Social Sciences aim to get as close as possible to objectivity.

The teaching of Social Sciences is important in Primary Education because it helps children understand social reality, learn to live in society, develop citizenship competence, and participate responsibly in their communities. It also promotes socialization, empathy, critical...

Developmental and Socio-Cultural Perspectives

The Developmental Lens

The developmental lens examines how people grow through biology, cognition, emotions, and specific stages of growth. This perspective assumes that all individuals progress through similar, universal stages of development.

The Socio-Cultural Lens

The socio-cultural lens focuses on how the world influences people through society, culture, and context. It examines how these factors shape us, emphasizing differences rather than similarities. Key concepts include:

• Culture: What people do within societies; the "social glue" and way of life.
• Institutions: The structures that organize society and provide order.

Defining Adulthood: Milestones and Boundaries

Legal and Social Milestones

Adulthood...

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor Stage

• Level 1: Reflexes and hereditary basis. Habits developed from the experience of repetition of reflexes.
• Level 2 (3 to 6 months): Primary circular reactions. Voluntary movements slowly replace reflex behavior.
• Level 3 (8 months to 1 year): Secondary and tertiary circular reactions; the search for new means.
• Level 4 (1 to 2 years): Invention, coordination, and mental anticipation.

Preoperational Stage

• Level 5 (2 to 4 years): Transition from dedicated conduct to rudimentary self-satisfaction and socialized behavior; ongoing research, play, and language as vehicles for development. Preconceptual thought.
• Level 6 (4 to 8 years): Intuitive thinking. Experiences are judged according to external appearances

Reinforcement: A consequence that increases the probability that a behavior will occur.

Escape Conditioning: Behavior is strengthened because it ends an unpleasant, present event.

Avoidance Conditioning: Behavior is strengthened because it postpones or prevents an objectionable event.

Punishment: A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur.

Social Learning Theory: Also known as imitation, this is learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates the behavior of another. It involves:

1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Motor Reproduction
4. Motivation or Incentive and Reinforcement

Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2 Years)

During this stage, infants learn about themselves and their world through sensory development and motor activity....

Types of Hypotheses

Research Hypothesis: Propositions, attempts on possible relationships between two or more variables.

• Descriptive Hypothesis Value: Sometimes used in descriptive studies to try to predict a datum or more variables to be measured.
• Correlational: Provides that two or more variables are linked.
• Group Difference: Aiming investigations were made to compare groups.
• Grounds: The relationship between variables is given by cause and effect, there is always an independent variable and a dependent one.
• Null Hypotheses: They are the reverse of the research hypothesis, it serves to refute or deny what the research hypothesis states.
• Alternative Hypotheses: They alternate between research hypothesis possibilities and the null hypothesis.

Types