Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for University

Sanitation Eviction (1461, 1474)

The seller is liable for eviction (deprivation of the property based on a prior right). This occurs when the buyer is deprived of ownership because a third party demonstrates a superior, pre-existing right to the property.

Requirements:

• The buyer must experience demonstrable harm and final, irreversible deprivation.
• The deprivation must be based on a right established before the purchase.
• The eviction must be irreversible, judicially enforced, and total or partial (1475-1480).
• The seller must be notified of the eviction lawsuit within the legal timeframe. Eviction liability is presumed (1478).

Effects:

• Refund of the price at the time of eviction.
• Payment of proceeds or revenue, if awarded in court.
• Reimbursement for

Plato and Aristotle: Understanding Their Metaphysical Differences

Similarities Between Plato and Aristotle

To understand the main differences, it is first necessary to know the similarities. Both Plato and Aristotle understood that reality is constituted by two basic principles, one active and one passive, or intellectual and material. The active ingredient is, in both authors, the essence of things.

• For Plato, the active principle is Ideas. The material world is sensitive, and things are what they are because they "participate in those ideas."
• For Aristotle, the active ingredient is the form, and the passive principle is matter. Consider an equestrian statue made of cast iron. Its shape is a horse with a leader on top; the material is cast iron.

The first similarity is that there are actors of only one kind: the relevant actors are individuals. In both cases, they have more or less equal powers. Obviously, this is not true in terms of countries, but anyone can harm another. They are dependent on each other. In both cases, you cannot trust the behavior of others. In fear of being killed, it is either kill or be killed: the most rational action is to kill first. The fifth similarity is that good and evil come after the social contract. International politics and relations are amoral: they lack morals.

MAX WEBBER “A STATE IS A MONOPOLY OF LEGITIMATE VIOLENCE IN A GIVEN TERRITORY”

There are three different ways to contemplate the relation between morals and war. The first one would be...

First, a common objection to utilitarianism is that it prioritizes maximizing happiness without considering minority perspectives or moral implications, leading to unfair outcomes. For example, many believe there is no moral obligation to refrain from driving gas-powered cars for leisure. This perceived lack of moral obligation stems from the belief that maximizing happiness for the majority, even if it's for leisure and has detrimental future consequences, is justifiable.

Second, there's a disconnect between the benefits enjoyed by present generations and the costs imposed on future ones. People today often prioritize immediate happiness without considering the long-term environmental costs. A potential solution is to implement measures that...

Relevance and Reliability in Accounting Information

To be useful, information needs to be relevant and reliable. Relevance and reliability are of crucial importance, but, unfortunately, they are not always compatible. Hence, we have to trade-off between them.

Accounting information is relevant when it is provided in time, but at early stages information is uncertain and hence less reliable. If we wait while the information gains reliability, its relevance is lost. After the balance sheet date, during the time when an audit is carried out, it becomes clear which debts were realized and which were not, hence it improves the reliability of the bad debts estimate, but the information loses its relevance due to too much time being taken. Timeliness...

Dividends

• Unless a dividend is declared by the board of directors of a corporation, it is not a liability of the corporation (A corporation cannot default on an undeclared dividend)
• The payment of dividends by the corporation is not a business expense. (Therefore, they are not tax-deductible)
• Dividends received by individual shareholders are, for the most part, considered ordinary income by the IRS and are fully taxable (There is an intra-corporate dividend exclusion)

Preferred Stock

Preferred stock represents equity of a corporation, but is different from common stock because it has preference over common in the payments of dividends and in the assets of the corporation in the event of bankruptcy. They have a stated liquidating value (usually $...

Philosophical Foundations and Classification

Porphyry's Tree and Universal Concepts

The Tree of Porphyry illustrates a classification system that influenced philosophers. In this tree, concepts are universal as well as particular, and with it began nominalism, which could be considered the precursor of modern taxonomy.

Understanding Genus and Species

• Next Genus: The broader category, e.g., for "man," the next genus is "animal."
• Specific Difference: This consists of the characteristic that makes a species different from other species belonging to the same genus.
  • Example: Man's next genus is "animal," and his specific difference is "rational."
• Specific Definition: This alludes to mediate or remote species.
• Substance: Cannot be defined.

Boethius and the

Descartes' Method (Meditations)

Introduction

Descartes sought a reliable method for attaining true scientific knowledge. He aimed to establish a foundation for reasoning and certainty.

Depth

The method needed to be simple, error-proof, and conducive to expanding knowledge. However, relying solely on the senses proved insufficient for acquiring genuine knowledge. Descartes' method analyzes ideas rationally, prioritizing the reliability of innate ideas over sensory experience. Inspired by mathematics, it involves four key rules:

1. Accept only clear and distinct ideas as true, grasped through intuition (immediate knowledge).
2. Analyze complex ideas by breaking them down into simpler, clear, and distinct components.
3. Reconstruct the analyzed idea through

Historical Context of Bakunin's Letter

This document draws a distinction between two major ideologies: Marxism and Anarchism. It was written by Mikhail Alexandrovich Bakunin, a preeminent anarchist philosopher often considered one of the movement's founding fathers. The recipient of this letter was Rubicone Nabruzzi, Vice President of the AIT (International Workingmen's Association) and a close associate of Bakunin.

This private political document was an attempt to influence the participants of the First International. Written in July 1872, the letter emerged during the height of the Second Industrial Revolution and shortly after the pivotal Hague Congress held that same year.

A Critique of Marxist Authoritarianism

The letter serves as a sharp...

The Interplay of Reason and Desire

Two Classes of Mind Processes

We can distinguish two main classes of mind processes. On one hand, we have rational processes like thinking, remembering, judging, and imagining. With these, we are aware of ourselves assenting to or dissenting from a proposition. On the other hand, we have desires, affections, and feelings. These are characterized by a lack of awareness; we don't choose our wishes or feelings. Rational processes are based on reason, while desires, emotions, and feelings, traditionally considered passions, are not.

Reason vs. Passion

Traditionally, it was believed that both rational and irrational processes were driven by opposing forces within us. This "battle" between reason and passion takes...