Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for Secondary education

Phenomenology and Hermeneutics

With the intention of overcoming the division and opposition between realism and idealism in knowledge, both phenomenology and hermeneutics emerged. The core theme of phenomenology is "going to the things themselves," aiming to understand what things are in their pure and simple presence to consciousness, the subject.

While attempting to mediate between idealism and realism, phenomenology prioritizes consciousness, as consciousness apprehends things themselves (similar to idealism). However, it also acknowledges that objects do not conform to the subject (as in realism). To achieve objectivity, it is necessary to shed all prejudices, theories, and interpretations through a process of reflection called "reduction,...

Introduction: The Rise of Moral and Political Philosophy

The Sophists initiated a new field of discussion: moral and political philosophy. Their work reflects the concerns expressed by Athenian citizens in public conversations.

The Sophist Shift: From Cosmos to Man

The Sophists moved the axis of philosophical inquiry from the cosmos to the human experience. The term sophist refers to a group of thinkers who assumed intellectual leadership in Athens during the second half of the fifth century BCE.

The term sophist means "wise" or "expert." These scholars took the reins of education, which had previously been the domain of poets, and transformed it into a professional practice. They carried out a revolution in thinking by shifting the focus from...

Plato's Theory of Ideas

Plato accepted the existence of mathematical objects and values but doubted the existence of sensible things. It seemed absurd that vulgar things could be Ideas, as Ideas are perfect, unlike the imperfect sensible world. He established a hierarchy of Ideas. The Idea of the Good is supreme, followed by Beauty and Justice.

Platonic Cosmology

According to Plato, any explanation of the sensible world cannot be truly scientific, but rather a plausible narrative filled with guesswork. Initially, there was only Chaos. To transform it into the Cosmos, Plato introduced the Demiurge, an ordering intelligence. This intelligence needed a model, which it found in the World of Ideas. It is a teleological model, pursuing a specific purpose....

Lease of Rustic Property

Villamartin de Campos (Palencia)

Between

Lessor: D. Julian Merino Ortega, DNI: 12628114-X, resident of Sestao

Lessee: D. ____________________________________________, ID: ____________________, resident of ______________________

The parties agree as follows:

1. Property Description

Don Julián Ortega Murphy owns the following rural property:

2. Lease Terms

The parties agree to lease the property under the following conditions:

1. Lease Period: Five years, beginning on ____________________________ and ending on __________________________. The lessee agrees to leave the property at the owner's disposal upon termination of the lease without prior notification.
2. Rent: _______________ euros (__________

Conscientious Objection: It is the duty of conscience of a citizen who considers a law to be breaking their religious or moral beliefs.

Ethics: A matter of thinking (reasoning) about behavior and rules to determine if they lead us to good. It is a part of philosophy.

Morality: A set of ethical standards that are in force in a given society. It is a social construct, and therefore, there are many moralities across different societies.

Differences in Ethics and Morality: Ethics is more objective and individual, while morality is more subjective and collective.

Metamoral: Analysis from a higher level than we typically do, examining the rules themselves.

Law: That which we possess simply by being in this world, regardless of race, color, religion. It...

Classification of Speech Acts

Perlocutionary Acts: This refers to the effect produced by uttering a statement. For example, the recipient's execution of an order. For instance, if someone is told to "close the window," the perlocutionary act is the actual closing of the window.

Types of Speech Acts

Directives: The speaker intends to make the listener perform an action. Examples include:

• Requesting
• Ordering
• Asking
• Requiring
• Resolving

Commissives: In this type of act, the speaker is committed in varying degrees to perform an action. We are dealing with speech acts such as:

• Promise
• Swear
• Gamble

Expressives: The sender expresses an emotion, physical, or emotional state. Speech acts of this type are:

• To congratulate
• To thank
• To complain
• To say hello

Declaratives:

Ethical Principles and Personal Responsibility

Understanding Freedom

We possess the freedom to act, which can lead to both happiness and sorrow. Authentic freedom applies to oneself and to others.

Acting with Good Conscience

We must always act thoughtfully, considering what to do. The first step to developing conscience is learning to listen.

Criteria for Ethical Evaluation

Ethical decisions are guided by established rules and values.

Defining Attitude

An attitude is the habitual disposition to act in a certain way, in accordance with a particular value.

Freedom: Response and Constructive Action

Freedom is also defined as the ability to respond appropriately and constructively.

The Concept of a Standard

A standard is a rule to be followed, as it determines...

John Locke's View on Political Power

For John Locke, the state or political power does not exist naturally. They are constructions and human conventions. What legitimates the authority of the state is essentially the issue of ownership of property.

The State of Nature

Before the existence of the state, civil society, and politics, man lived in a natural state of freedom, equality, and full independence. Man did not have to ask permission nor depend on the will of anyone. All had the same rights and opportunities.

This state was governed by Natural Law, which is a moral law independent of any convention. It was a state where:

• Each man was responsible for observing and implementing natural law.
• Power was neither absolute nor arbitrary, as all rational

Fundamental Human Rights: Obligations and Categories

Obligation to Respect Rights and Non-Discrimination

States Parties to this Convention undertake to respect the rights and freedoms recognized herein and to ensure free and full exercise to all persons subject to their jurisdiction, without any discrimination based on:

• Race, color, sex, language, or religion;
• Political or any other opinion;
• National or social origin, property, birth, or other status.

Core Civil and Political Rights

Right to Life

Everyone has the right to respect for his life. This right is protected by law and, in general, from the time of the conception. Nobody can be deprived of life arbitrarily.

Protection of Honor and Dignity

Everyone has the right to respect for his honor and recognition...

Social Norms and Legal Frameworks

Social rules define what is considered normal behavior within a society. Legal rules are formal, written regulations established by political authorities; any infringement allows the state to hold the offender accountable. These frameworks are categorized into social norms, moral codes, and legal statutes.

The Necessity of Political Participation

Being apolitical implies separating oneself from the polis—the organized society in which one lives—to exist in solitude. However, because we live in a society, we are inherently part of a political community. We cannot and should not avoid participating in matters that concern us all.

Defining Law and State Authority

A legal system consists of public standards backed...