Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for Primary education

Business Legal Structures and Terminology

Core Legal Concepts

• Legal Form: Identification of a legal entity before the administration, customers, and suppliers.
• Disclaimer: The obligation to respond to business claims, which may be limited or unlimited.
• Capital Contribution: Assets, goods, or labor provided by partners to form a company.

Types of Business Entities

• Sole Trader: An individual with legal capacity who conducts business in their own name or through representatives. They are personally liable for all obligations without distinction between civil and commercial assets.
• General Partnership: A society where all partners participate in commercial activities with equal rights and obligations. Liability is unlimited.
• Limited Partnership: An organization

In science, a prediction can be understood in two ways: as the operation or activity used to formulate a description of a material fact, or as the description itself (the sentence).

At times, some philosophers and epistemologists refer to scientific prediction, perhaps influenced by Hempel-like reasoning or arguments made to obtain a predictive conclusion.

Prediction usually refers to a statement—a descriptive sentence about an event, often of a low level of generality. A characteristic of all scientific prediction is that we do not yet know the cognitive status of the utterance, or whether it is a hypothesis whose truth value is unknown.

It is a mistake to identify prediction solely with the description of a future event, since not all predictions...

1.1 Knowledge Problem: Rationalism and Empiricism

The central concern of philosophy was the problem of knowledge. Rationalism and empiricism faced the same problem, but differed in how to approach and address it. Rationalism is characterized by the primacy given to reason in the pursuit of truth, and its basic principle is that our true knowledge of reality has its origin and basis in reason. Rationalists identify rational knowledge with scientific knowledge, especially mathematics. They are therefore convinced that the structure of reality is mathematical in nature and believe that mathematics is the only path to certain knowledge of reality. The problem, then, is to develop the method of applying mathematics to philosophy: a deductive system....

Saint Thomas Aquinas

1. The Problem of Reason and Faith

Faith and reason are two faculties that are at the same level and have the same value, each dealing with its own domain.

• The truths we know by faith: we know them through revelation.
• The truths we know by reason: we know them by reasoning.

There is common ground that Thomas Aquinas called the preambles of faith. In this common ground, if faith and reason come into conflict, the more authoritative is faith. If philosophy and theology conflict in this field, theology is more important. The common ground is developable.

2. Metaphysics

Thomas Aquinas has a monistic view of reality: there is one natural world. In every natural thing there is something that remains; that which remains is in this world—there...

Theoretical Approaches

1) Mechanistic Learning

Focuses on the relationship between Environment (E) and Response (R) and the correspondence between them. Conduct acts as a mediator between stimuli affecting an organism and the subsequent responses. Learning is defined as a permanent change in the relationship between E and R, where R is any item of conduct, and encouragement is any sense. The response (R) is produced by the environment (E). Mechanistic theories lend themselves to greater accuracy and better match with a unified scientific approach.

2) Cognitive Learning

This approach emphasizes the intuitive aspects of behavior. Appropriate behavior appears relatively suddenly, without manifesting a gradual strengthening of the E-R link or conduct...

Language Theory: Wittgenstein and the Tractatus

Language is the problem of being tied to colloquial speech. The end of philosophy is knowledge; if it is not transmitted, language serves as an instrument of philosophy.

Theories of Language

• Naturalism: Word and truth are a single unit.
• Conventional Theory: Speech is prior to reality.
• Reflection: Language is a reflection of the mind.

Socrates rescued the concept from the Sophists, arguing that language is not merely nomos, but logos (action).

Categories of Knowledge

Knowledge has three degrees: sensitivity, understanding, and reason. To reach the third stage of self-knowledge, one must organize the mind through categories.

Features of Categories

• Architectural: How we know.
• Ontological: Defining the essence

The Distinction Between Autonomy and Heteronomy

Immanuel Kant, whose moral philosophy is centered around the concept of autonomy, distinguishes between a person who is intellectually autonomous and one who keeps themselves in an intellectually heteronymous—that is, dependent and immature—status. Kant understands the majority of people to be content to follow the guiding institutions of society, such as the Church and the Monarchy, and unable to throw off the yoke of their immaturity due to a lack of resolution to be autonomous.

The Challenge of Intellectual Immaturity

It is difficult for individuals to work their way out of this immature, cowardly life because we are so uncomfortable with the idea of thinking for ourselves. Kant says that...

Six Arguments Against Cloning

Here are the counterarguments for these six points, in an effort to keep the arguments on both sides balanced.

1. Identity and Psychological Pressure

If a child was cloned from a person who was alive for a long time and then died, they would have expectations to live up to. They would probably live a very stressful life and might suffer from emotional problems, knowing that they were not an individual but a clone.

2. Health Problems and Premature Aging

A big problem with cloning is the fact that many health problems occur with most of the animals that were cloned. Dolly, the famous cloned sheep, suffered from premature arthritis and progressive lung disease. This was at the age of six while most sheep live up to the...

Reason and Happiness: The Socratic Intellectualism

The equation Reason = Happiness is central to Socratic ethical intellectualism, which postulates that knowledge is the only factor allowing an individual to behave in a good way. Conversely, it identifies reason as the determinant of good, while instinct is viewed as an unnatural imposition—a repressive force represented primarily by Socrates and Plato. Christianity later replaced reason with faith in this same equation, whereas Nietzsche argued the contrary: he viewed the deployment of creative instincts as the true path to health.

The Nietzschean Equations

• Faith and Reason = Decline and Disease
• Health and Instinct = Creative Deployment

Symptoms of Metaphysical Beliefs

The belief in metaphysical...

Control of Autonomous Bodies' Activities

The Constitution and relevant statutes establish controls on the activities of the organs of the Autonomous Communities (CCAA). These controls do not imply hierarchical subordination, which would negate the principle of autonomy. Instead, they ensure that the CCAA remain subject to the Spanish legal order through the following mechanisms:

• Legal Jurisdictional Control (Article 153): Corresponds to the Constitutional Court and administrative jurisdiction.
• Economic and Budgetary Control: Managed by the Court of Auditors.
• Delegation of Tasks: Exercised by the Government after consulting the Council of State (Articles 150, 153).

The Constitution also provides for special government control over regional governments...