Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for Other courses

General Principle of State Immunity

General immunity from jurisdiction is a principle of international law that excludes the possibility that a State may be subject to the jurisdiction of another State. States can act abroad; however, the foreign State must comply with the law of the State in whose territory it operates. If a State violates that law, domestic courts cannot entertain claims against it. This concerns the scope and regulation of immunity from jurisdiction of the State, its organs and their property.

The doctrine of absolute immunity from jurisdiction is the classic doctrine: it affects all acts of State. By contrast, the doctrine of relative (or restrictive) immunity distinguishes between acts performed as sovereign functions and...

Theories on Human Nature

Religious Perspectives

Religious theories are based on beliefs that cannot be rationally proven, yet believers accept them as divinely revealed, such as in mysticism. These theories define human dignity through a relationship with God, asserting that humans were created in His image and likeness.

In Eastern religions, the human being is highly valued; notably, Hindu gods do not manifest in human form.

Rational and Philosophical Theories

These theories can be rationally justified and are considered universally valid:

• The Rational Being: (e.g., Descartes)
• The Social Being: (e.g., Aristotle)
• The Free and Moral Being: (e.g., Thomas Aquinas)
• The Metaphysical Being: (e.g., Ortega y Gasset)

The Human Being as a Rational Entity

• Greek

Political Power and Legitimacy

Political power, as understood by powerful politicians, involves the authority responsible for enforcing laws. We obey the law out of fear of punishment. Throughout history, there have been various understandings of political power:

• Absolute: Grants political authority all powers (legislative, executive, judicial).
• Democracy: Power is distributed among various institutions (e.g., the executive branch runs the government; the legislature makes laws; the judiciary judges). In a democracy, the law takes precedence over the ruling power.

Legitimacy: The basis upon which political power rests. It concerns:

• The manner in which the person possessing authority acquired it.
• The exercise of that power, guided by the laws dictated

Atheism

A doctrine which, in theory or attitude, and in practice, denies the existence of God. It is important to distinguish atheism, which asserts a positive non-existence of God, from indifferentism, agnosticism, and skepticism.

Feign

To have the appearance (of a certain thing, a certain age, etc.). Historically, in religions, there have always been people or doctrines that feigned or appeared to be something else.

Science

A set of knowledge and activities designed to achieve it, characterized formally by intersubjectivity, and practically by the ability to make accurate predictions about a part of reality.

Tarraconense Council

A document that reflects on the needs of the poorest and marginalized, and calls upon Christians to renew their commitment...

Unilateral Acts in International Law

Unilateral Promise: A statement made by a state with a clear intention to be bound by its terms. It becomes mandatory for that state, which must adjust its conduct to align with that statement.

Renunciation: The voluntary abandonment of a right. For example, a state may waive territorial rights, the immunity of diplomatic agents, or a diplomatic claim.

Notification: The act whereby a state official communicates an event or situation to another. Once notified, the fact is considered validly communicated to the recipient. While notification is in principle optional, certain cases in public international law impose a mandatory obligation to notify.

Recognition: The act or series of acts through which a state supports...

Plato's The Republic: Historical and Philosophical Context

The Political Setting of 5th Century Athens

Plato's major work, The Republic, is situated in the second half of 5th century B.C. Athens, a period when the newly born democracy was on the rise, largely thanks to the management of Pericles. Following the victory in the Greco-Persian Wars (often called the Medic Wars), the population's feeling of participation in the administration of the city-state grew. This era eventually led to the defeat of Athens against Sparta in the Peloponnesian Wars and the subsequent Government of the Thirty Tyrants.

Plato was invited to participate in the government of the Thirty Tyrants but declined the offer due to his violent opposition to a regime that sought...

The Values of the New Civilization

a) The Transmutation of All Values

Nietzsche rejects the supernatural and exalts all things earthly. He posits that the soul does not exist; rather, man is one body, which Nietzsche refers to as "great reason."

b) The Will to Power

The Will to Power is the rebellion of the instinct of life against the rule of reason. It is fundamentally the will to create.

c) The Eternal Return and Amor Fati

Post-metaphysical nihilism arises from values that undermine life. Nietzsche’s doctrine of eternal recurrence expresses the destiny of human beings and the world. This "terrible truth" requires a strong individual to endure it. It includes the concept of amor fati—the acceptance of destiny—which frees human beings from...

Analysis

1. The Apollonian and Dionysian

Nietzsche aims to create a philosophy capable of understanding the reality of human life. Our author sees life as a process in constant realization. This aims to understand the human species and therefore needs to analyze the human reality in all its manifestations. He is critical of earlier philosophers because they forget that man is a being in permanent construction. Nietzsche maintains the idea that life is cruel and a blind irrationality. The Greek god Dionysus represents life. Art gives us the strength to accept life as it is. Tragic art represents the full affirmation of life. The secret of the Greek world is in the Dionysian spirit.

To explain the reality of life, Nietzsche draws on the Greek gods...

General Principles of Bioethics

The general principles of bioethics include:

• Primacy of human life: Teaches that human life must be protected from conception until natural death.
• Human dignity: Means that every person possesses intrinsic value independently of health or usefulness.
• Beneficence and Non-maleficence: Beneficence seeks the good of the patient, while non-maleficence forbids causing unnecessary harm.
• Patient autonomy
• Proportionality of means: Rejects excessive or abusive medical treatments.

Biological and Ethical Status of the Embryo

According to biology, from the moment of fertilization, a new and unique human organism begins to exist. The embryo possesses its own independent DNA and develops through a coordinated and continuous process....

Value and Value Education

Value: Importance of right understanding and right conduct in human life.
Value Education: Helps a person understand human values to live a happy and ethical life.

Basic Human Aspirations

The basic human aspirations are continuous happiness and prosperity. All human beings work in daily life to achieve these.

Difference Between Self and Body

• Self (I): A conscious entity that feels, thinks, and desires.
• Body: A physical entity used for activities that requires physical facilities.

Self-Regulation

Self-regulation means controlling desires, thoughts, and behavior through right understanding, ensured by self-discipline and self-awareness.

Justice in Human Relationships

Justice is defined by mutual understanding, trust, and right...