Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for Baccalaureate

Hume’s Moral Emotivism

David Hume’s ethical approach is original and critiques the ethical traditions of Western philosophy. He argues that the historical error has been defending an ethics based on reason, which stems from an ignorance of human nature. Through this critique of rationalism, Hume denies the ability to establish moral criteria based solely on logic. In the realm of morals, Hume argues that feelings determine moral evaluation. Sentiments such as pleasure and pain constitute moral values. Reason's only task is to arouse passions or establish order among them. Moral judgment is ultimately based on the moral sense of empathy, which is an inherent quality in humanity.

Plato’s Theory of Ideas

Ideas are entities that exist beyond...

The Core Problems of Modern Philosophy

Two main problems focused the interest of the philosophers of this period. The first is the theoretical question: finding out how things can be known. In this context, only those things that are knowable are declared real. The second, practical question concerns the justification for the existence of God and freedom. We shall concern ourselves in the first place with the theoretical problem.

Realism vs. Philosophical Idealism

Realism was the doctrine followed where the subject knows reality directly. In contrast, Idealism is characterized by the belief that we have to know a representation of the object, rather than reality itself. These representations of reality are what we call ideas. The metaphysical...

Philosophical Perspectives on Knowledge and Reality

Aristotle and the Desire for Wisdom

Text 26: Aristotle posits that humans have an innate desire to know, which becomes apparent when we lack sensory input. For the philosopher, this drive is a pursuit of wisdom—seeking to understand the most profound truths, not for practical utility, but for the sake of knowledge itself. In essence, the philosopher seeks to understand reality as a whole, which is the foundation of Metaphysics.

Descartes and the Role of Reason

Text 27: Descartes examines the reliability of the senses. He argues that because senses can deceive us, it is ultimately reason that allows us to attain an accurate understanding of reality.

Critique of Protagoras

Text 28: Aristotle critiques...

Rational Action: Principles and Application

Rational action involves the proper use of reason applied to our beliefs, motives, and actions. It is the process of choosing the best option among all possibilities, characterized by its universality. Rational action must be based on sound reasons, motives, and beliefs that are consistent and logical, applicable to both individual and collective practices.

Individual Rational Action

Individual rational action is defined by an agent acting based on good reasons. To act rationally, one must meet several criteria:

• A person acts rationally only if they are conscious of their desires.
• Practical rationality requires an awareness of logical consistency.
• It requires a rational consciousness as complete as possible

Introduction to the Scientific Revolution

A. The Paradigm Shift

The origin of modern science is rooted in the Renaissance Scientific Revolution. This revolution began prominently in astronomy, where Copernicus initiated the transition from the old view to the modern one.

Contrasting Cosmological Views

The shift involved moving away from the Aristotelian model:

• Aristotelian View: Held that the cosmos was a finite, closed unit consisting of two worlds: the sublunary and supralunar. These worlds were subject to different laws and composed of different elements and compounds.
• Modern View: Maintains that the cosmos is an open, perhaps infinite, set, consisting of the same basic components, governed by the same laws, and the Earth is only one element of

Reason and Methods in Cartesian Philosophy

René Descartes is considered the father of modern philosophy and rationalism, the first modern philosophical current. Modern philosophy is defined by two main features:

• Connection to empirical sciences: Physics and astronomy emerged from the Copernican revolution.
• Mathematical application: Philosophers sought to apply the effectiveness of empirical sciences to philosophy by utilizing the mathematical method.

Characteristics of Rationalism

Rationalism posits that reason is the primary source of knowledge. It underestimates the senses and considers reason to be self-sufficient. Modern rationalism is diametrically opposed to British empiricism (Locke and Hume), which rejects the concept of innate ideas—ideas...

Understanding Scientific Methods and Explanations

Language in Scientific Inquiry

The distinction between artificial and natural language is crucial in scientific discourse. Natural language serves primarily as a means of communication, whereas artificial languages are specifically designed for precise scientific explanation. Artificial languages encompass formal systems like logic and mathematics. While human language can be inherently vague, artificial languages provide the necessary clarity and rigor for scientific endeavors.

Types of Scientific Explanations

Scientific explanations can be categorized based on their approach and the phenomena they address:

• Deductive Explanations: Characteristic of natural sciences (e.g., physics) and formal sciences

Ethico-Political Thought

Ethico-political thought is heavily influenced by Aristotelian hedonistic ethics, where happiness is considered the ultimate end, and teleology, which posits that this end is achieved through the specific capabilities of human life. True happiness is reached by devoting one's life to achieving the highest knowledge, as earthly life alone does not constitute auténtica (authentic) happiness.

The Three Laws

To reach this state, three laws must be followed:

• Lex Aeterna (Eternal Law): Governs the behavior of all creatures.
• Lex Naturalis (Natural Law): Derived from natural tendencies, such as protecting life, doing no harm to others, and seeking the truth.
• Lex Positiva (Positive Law): Rules prepared for man to live in society.

Fundamental Concepts in Metaphysics

Abstraction

Abstraction is the capacity whereby the understanding extracts the form, universal or specific, from individual things and eliminates the material. Through this process, concepts are derived from sensory experience. In our case, these concepts are the effects of the five-way split (Q), since metaphysics is located in the third degree of abstraction, where we deal with abstract forms, i.e., with pure entities (entes).

Act and Potentiality (Actus et Potentia)

Act (Actus) is the realization of potential, what makes things what they are (Q). A being that is made has already acquired a form. Act is opposed to potentiality and serves, along with the concept of potentiality, to explain movement as the passage...

Empirico-Rational Method

The empirico-rational method utilizes both the senses and reason. The first level of data is provided by the senses, acknowledging that reality is multiple and changing. Reasoning allows us to perceive, extract, and understand the underlying principles of reality.

The second level of reality concerns the essence of things—what they are and why they exist. This method, known as empirico-rational, begins with physical experience and movement, culminating in the understanding of being.

Empirical Method: Experience and Reason

Experience serves as the source, while reason acts as the edge and criterion. Reason is the appropriate source for developing formal sciences like logic and mathematics, resulting in truths of reason,...