Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for Baccalaureate

Aristotle's First Philosophy

The Study of Being

According to Aristotle's Metaphysics, all entities share something in common: being. Aristotle seeks knowledge that investigates ideas and principles valid for all types of entities, which he calls 'first philosophy'. The principles of being are present in all types of entities. These principles are not something sensible but are understood by precise reason.

Substance in Metaphysics

Defining Substance

The principle of substance is that which underlies an entity, ensuring it remains that specific being. Substance is always individual and not transferable. Substance is being, vital and fundamental. All that can be said of any entity must relate to its substance.

Types of Substance

Aristotle distinguishes...

1. The First Period (368–348 BC): The Academy Years

This period marks Aristotle's time at the Academy. It is characterized by his acceptance of Platonic philosophy. Key works include:

• Eudemus or On the Soul: A dialogue maintaining the theory of Ideas and the immortality of the soul.
• Protrepticus (Exhortation): A letter in which he also maintains the theory of Ideas.

2. The Second Period (348–335 BC): Transition and Development

Spanning from his departure from the Academy until his return to Athens, Aristotle began to deviate from predominantly Platonic theses to develop his own independent thought, though he was still considered a "scholar" in this initial phase.

• On Philosophy: A critique of the theory of Ideas, specifically its mathematical

Key Philosophical Concepts and Thinkers

Orphic Mysteries

The Orphic mysteries have specific beliefs influenced by Greek philosophy. Named after Orpheus, they introduced a new perspective into Greek civilization regarding beliefs and the interpretation of human existence. They proclaim the immortality of the soul and the concept of the human soul-body.

Orphic beliefs include:

• A core (blame) falls upon a body.
• An immortal soul resides in the body until it is freed from its guilt.
• Only the Orphic can end the cycle of reincarnation.
• For the purified, there will be a prize.

Myth vs. Logos

Myth: A collection of traditional stories and teachings of poets (especially Homer). Myths attempt to explain reality in its entirety. Everything happens arbitrarily by...

Plato vs. Aristotle: Core Philosophical Differences

For Plato, there are two distinct worlds: the sensible and the supersensible. The intelligible world, for him, is the most real and transcendent. By contrast, for Aristotle, the only world that exists is the sensible one, consisting of unique, specific, external, individual objects.

Key Contrasts Between Plato and Aristotle

• The Concept of Form and Essence

  The notion of Plato's Idea as the essence of things coincided with Aristotle's concept of the Formal Cause. The key distinction lies in their nature: for Plato, the Idea is transcendent and separate from the world, while for Aristotle, the form is immanent, existing within matter itself.

• Cosmic Order and Prime Mover

  The Platonic concept of the

Plato's Moral Philosophy

The Pursuit of Happiness and the Immortal Soul

• The ultimate goal for humans, according to Plato, was to achieve happiness.
• Plato asserted the immortality of the soul. He argued that our moral sense in daily life necessitates an immortal soul to ensure justice. Thus, good behavior and attitude in life would be rewarded posthumously.
• Plato suggested that if individuals lead virtuous lives, their permanent soul would receive a prize upon the body's death. Good conduct leads to a reward and happiness after death, while bad or criminal conduct leads to punishment.

Rewards and Reincarnation

• The ultimate prize for the virtuous: Never reincarnating, but instead residing forever on the Isles of the Blessed. Philosophers, in particular,

Plato's Cave Allegory: A Philosophical Analysis

The text is a fragment of Plato's Myth of the Cave, which condenses several core doctrines:

• Theory of Knowledge (Epistemological Level)
• Pedagogical Reading (Education as key to rebalancing the internal order of the soul)
• Ontological Reading (Ontological dualism)
• Political Reading (Thesis of the philosopher-king)
• Anthropological Reading (Concept of man as composed of body and soul)

The Socratic Dialogue Method

The text's dialogical structure reflects the core intent of Plato's philosophy: to foster dialogue in human relationships, contrasting with the violence that Socrates ultimately faced. This approach will be further detailed in its contextualization.

Journey from the Cave: Degrees of Knowledge

The ascent...

Nietzsche's Critique of Traditional Metaphysics

The Ontological Error and the 'Other World'

Nietzsche identifies a critical ontological error within traditional metaphysics. This error contrasts values, asserting that significant values originate from an "another world," often associated with God. Traditional metaphysics posits these values as static, fixed, and immutable, not truly visible in this world of being, where only appearance is perceived. Consequently, the search for truth is directed towards this "other world."

Nietzsche asserts that there is only one world, which constantly creates and destroys. He highlights a significant relationship between ontology and morality, linking the real-world division with what he considers "contranatural"...

Journalistic Genres

The main journalistic genres are categorized as follows:

1. The News

The news is an objective account of an event where no part of the journalist's opinion is present. It consists of short, critical data of general interest. Its structure includes:

• Headline: A brief sentence that stresses the general appearance of the news and is intended to attract attention.
• Entry: A paragraph that condenses the most important aspects of the news.
• Body: This is made up of a number of paragraphs that develop and complement the entry.

2. The Report

The report is a newspaper article that provides objective information about a topic of interest. It is usually of greater extent than the news. In this genre, the author arrives at the scene of the facts,...

Hume's Philosophy: Key Concepts

Ideas

Ideas are a kind of perception that are less lively and depend on sense impressions. They are based on experience, which Hume argues is the only possible area of knowledge.

Ideas are copies or derivations of our impressions and meanings derived from internal or external sources.

• Hume attaches extreme importance to the law of association of ideas. Human nature has a tendency to link ideas together. These laws are resemblance, contiguity, and cause-and-effect relationship.
• Imagination plays a big role in the combinations of ideas that we create, and often follows the force of habit.
• The association between ideas helps to explain concepts like the idea of substance and the idea of subject. Hume criticizes ideas

Theories of Law and the Legitimacy of Laws

Iusnaturalismo (Natural Law)

According to Natural Law theory, there is a fixed and universal legal code applicable across all times and places. This natural law allows us to establish whether positive laws are legal and legitimate. It is a universal law, in force at all times, in all places, and under all social and religious circumstances. Its universality requires fair compliance.

Scholastic Philosophy (Middle Ages) closely connected natural law with the divine. While natural law provides the latest illustration, theorists do not agree on the precise source of this natural right, especially when considering non-irrational sources.

Neocontractualism (John Rawls)

John Rawls is one of the best-known authors...