Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for Baccalaureate

Essential One-Word Substitutions

• Culture: All the arts, beliefs, and social institutions characteristic of a race.
• Transparent: Allowing the passage of rays of light.
• Reservoir: An artificial lake for storing water.
• Hives: Artificial centers for honey bees.
• Sculpture: The art of carving figures in wood or stone.
• Horticulture: The art of growing vegetables, fruit, and flowers.
• Aeronautics: The science of flying aircraft.
• Aerobatics: The art of performing acrobatic acts.
• Abroad: Away from one's country.
• Import: To bring goods from a foreign country.
• Agenda: Business to be discussed by a committee.
• Dogma: A belief accepted without question.
• Superstition: A belief not based on reason.
• Cosmopolitan: Belonging to all parts of the world.
• Succession: The coming of

The Dialectic Method

This proposes a philosophical research procedure based on dialogue. A dialogue is a discussion between people holding different points of view. If the dialogue is fruitful, the differing points of view are overcome and a consensus is reached.

The difference between an ordinary dialogue and the dialectic method is that in an ordinary dialogue there are always two or more speakers, whereas in the dialectic method, opposing ideas can be put forward by one single thinker. This method has been used by many philosophers throughout history, most notably Plato, Hegel, and Marx.

The Phenomenological Method

Proposed by Husserl, this method aims to describe the sense that the world has for us. In knowing an object, we do not comprehend...

Durkheim's View on Religion's Social Role

Religion provided meaning in life, authority figures, and most importantly for Durkheim, it reinforced the morals and social norms held collectively by all within a society. Far from dismissing religion as mere fantasy, despite its natural origin, Durkheim saw it as a critical part of the social system.

Religion serves several vital social functions:

• Social Control: Guiding behavior and maintaining order.
• Cohesion: Uniting individuals through shared beliefs and practices.
• Purpose: Providing individuals with a sense of meaning and direction.
• Communication and Gathering: Offering a means for individuals to interact and reaffirm social norms.

The Sacred and the Profane: Durkheim's Distinction

Durkheim's second...

External Sensible Knowledge

The Object of the Senses

• Formal Object:
  • Per se (Direct): That which can be perceived by the sense.
    • Proper: Can only be perceived by one specific sense.
    • Common: Can be perceived by multiple senses.
  • Per accidens (Indirect): That which the sense does not perceive by itself, but is added by the soul to the direct object. Our senses are never wrong; this is confirmed by experience.

The Nature of the Senses

Senses are potencies or powers. They require stimulation to transition from potency to act. Senses react to the action of an object; they are passive, meaning they will not react without external activity.

1. It is a capability.
2. It is a passive potency.
3. It is neither purely material nor spiritual; senses are bodies informed by an

Humanization: This evolutionary process occurred alongside hominization. It refers to the behavioral changes experienced by the same species included in the hominization process.

Humanism: Artistic and intellectual movement originating in Europe during the Renaissance. It defended free spirit and championed the abilities of human reason and intuition in the fields of philosophy, science, and art. Humanism avoided syllogistic methodology and dogmas that tried to control human creativity.

Inertia: Property of all bodies that keeps them at rest or in rectilinear motion, as long as that state is not changed by an external force.

Monotheism: Religious belief that affirms the existence of only one god who controls and governs all of reality.

Multiculturalism:

The Evolution of Social Rights and Neoliberal Critique

Although during the 20th century fundamental social rights were extended to include social, economic, and cultural requirements—such as education, health, pensions, and unemployment protection—recent decades have seen neoliberal voices challenge this expansion, advocating for a return to a pure liberal model.

Friedrich Hayek and the Road to Servitude

Friedrich Hayek, the 1974 Nobel Prize laureate in Economic Sciences, argued that the social and political evolution of Western societies stems from the free market's capacity to balance individual interests. He maintained that:

• Market outcomes should be accepted without moral judgment regarding justice or injustice.
• Political interventionism

Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Philosophy of Society and Property

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) offered profound insights into human nature, the state of nature, and the origins of society. His ideas challenged conventional wisdom and continue to influence political thought.

Rousseau's State of Nature

Rousseau posited a state of nature distinct from that of his contemporaries like Hobbes. While Hobbes described a "war of all against all," Rousseau envisioned a more peaceful, pre-social existence:

• Absence of Scarcity: Unlike Hobbes, Rousseau believed the state of nature was one of abundance, where nature provided for human needs.
• Undeveloped Imagination and Desires: Early humans were simple and ignorant, their minds undeveloped. Consequently, their desires

Descartes' Analysis of Ideas

In this text, Descartes presents his analysis of ideas. First, Descartes states that our ideas, considered as immanent content (internal content) of our mind, cannot be considered false. Then, after recognizing that we can only be wrong when we make judgments, he says that it is a very common mistake to assume that our ideas refer to external entities; otherwise, we would never be wrong. Finally, Descartes concludes by explaining his distinction between the three types of ideas: innate, fictitious, and adventitious.

Locke's Critique of Cartesian Innatism

In this text, John Locke presents his critique of Cartesian innatism. First, Locke states that the goal of this text is to refute the widespread belief in the existence...

Essential English Vocabulary

Here's a compilation of useful English words and their meanings, categorized for easier learning:

Common Verbs and Adjectives

• Over: Finished
• Complain: Say that you aren't satisfied
• Jumpers: Sweaters
• Down: Sad
• Fades: Become less bright
• Rise: Get up
• Sight: View
• Costumes: Clothes
• Tend: Are more likely
• Flicker: Move quickly
• Amazing: Wonderful
• Displays: Shows
• Dishes: Foods
• Such as: For example
• Truly: Really
• Join in: Do an activity with others
• Turn up: Arrive
• Share out: Divide
• Wet: Humid
• Cross: Angry
• Tough: Hard
• As: Because
• Harbour: Place on the coast...
• Loads: Many
• Scruffy: Dirty
• Crowded: Full
• Perform: Entertain an audience
• Stage: Platform
• Sightseeing: Visiting places
• Soak up: (British) Absorb
• Claim: Say that something is true
• Appeal: Be attractive
• Cater: