Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for Baccalaureate

The Problem of Knowledge: Epistemology

Hume is the most important author of the school of empiricism. Empiricism states that all our knowledge comes from experience. Hume denies the existence of innate ideas in reason, prior to experience, since our mind is like a blank page on which nothing is written at birth (tabula rasa).

He distinguishes two elements of knowledge (or "perceptions"): impressions, more vivid mental representations received by the senses (external or internal); and ideas, which are representations or copies of past impressions in the mind, characterized by being less lively. Both impressions and ideas can be simple or complex.

Ideas can be associated or connected according to three basic laws: the law of similarity, the law...

Hume's Epistemology: Relations of Ideas and Matters of Fact

Human knowledge is composed of simple ideas, impressions, and composite materials, but this composition alone does not constitute actual knowledge. Knowing means identifying properties. For example, knowledge is attributed to the "flame" when I perceive the property of "burning." Once I connect these two sets of impressions, I can state that "the flame is burning." David Hume finds that the objects of human reason can be divided into two classes:

1. Relations of Ideas

This term refers to knowledge or truth for which information does not accurately draw on experience. It is sufficient to analyze the words and their meanings. These are necessary truths that cannot be conceived otherwise....

The Socratic Ideal of Self-Examination

Socrates was not a professional philosopher but a simple citizen guided by an unshakeable desire for truth, questioning the values and practices of his time. Socrates gave no definitive answers, nor did he appear to claim he had them. He only knew that the conventional answers of his fellow citizens often lacked true understanding. However, his ideal of life was not exhausted in the negativity of this apparent skepticism. Above all, he wanted individuals to care for their souls and find the truth, believing that truth should illuminate our lives. Socrates was convinced that truth exists, and although hard to find, it is to be found within ourselves. He argued the difficulty lies in our souls being full...

Defining Science

Science is a type of knowledge distinct from ordinary knowledge. Ordinary knowledge often focuses on the result of an event, whereas a scientist questions its cause. Science establishes relationships between concepts and formulates laws, asserting that these relationships occur regularly.

Understanding Knowledge

A person knows an event if and only if:

• The subject believes in that event.
• The subject's belief in the event is rationally justified.
• The event is true.

Scientific Knowledge

The scientific community knows a theory if and only if:

• The scientific community believes in this theory.
• The scientific community's belief in that theory is rational and scientifically justified.

These conditions are also necessary; the scientific community...

The Enduring Legacy of Thomas Aquinas

Early Opposition and the Rise of Thomism

Following the death of Thomas Aquinas, his philosophy faced significant opposition, particularly from the Franciscans. They regarded Saint Augustine as the most faithful exponent of the Christian view. This opposition culminated in the condemnation of certain Thomistic doctrines by ecclesiastical authorities in Paris and Oxford in 1277. However, it soon became clear that these fears were unfounded. Following the canonization of Saint Thomas in 1323, Thomism expanded significantly, becoming a dominant intellectual force.

Reason and Faith: Aquinas Versus Augustine

A central theme in medieval philosophy is the ongoing debate between reason and faith. Thomas Aquinas, unlike...

Machiavelli's Core Political Ideas

Niccolò Machiavelli's seminal work, The Prince, presents a radical departure from traditional political thought. His key ideas include:

1. Many have imagined republics and principalities that have not truly existed.
2. Political ruin stems from failing to distinguish between how one lives and how one should live.
3. One who always strives to be good among so many who are not, will inevitably come to ruin.
4. Therefore, a prince must always act according to necessity.

Author Background: Niccolò Machiavelli

Born in Florence in the fifteenth century, Niccolò Machiavelli participated actively in the politics of his city after the fall of the Medici. He was a quintessential Renaissance man, a humanist, and a politician. Machiavelli...

Plato: Athenian Philosopher's Early Life

Plato was born in Athens in 427 BC into a noble family. He received an education in music and gymnastics. A pivotal moment in his life occurred in 407 BC when he met his future mentor, Socrates. Plato studied under Socrates for about eight years until Socrates was convicted of corrupting the youth. Socrates was condemned to drink hemlock and died, refusing to renounce his sentence, accompanied by close friends at his final meal.

Plato was not present during his teacher's final moments, an event reported in the Phaedo. This outrageous injustice likely became the prototype for the philosophical struggle Plato dedicated his life to. Because of this event, the philosopher consistently attacked democracy as...

The Quest for Arche: Early Greek Philosophers

What kind of reality is the unitary order that justifies the diversity of things in the world? The answers given to this question may seem naive, but what is important is not the answers, but the very wording of that question.

The Ionian School

A common characteristic unites these thinkers: All things share one and the same first principle, or arche. Their basic concern is to find the foundation that explains the common constitution of everything; that which informs us about *physis*, i.e., the physical world.

• Thales: He sees the arche in water, observing the different forms it takes and how water is the essential element of life.
• Anaximander: The first to use the word arche. He posits that the basic

Cartesian Methodical Doubt

The Nature of Methodical Doubt

Methodical doubt is an essential method of Cartesian philosophy, aiming at the radical foundation of knowledge by rejecting all beliefs that may arise in doubt. The practice of methodical doubt calls into question not only the value of the senses but also that of deductive reason. The physical world, including the external body, does not resist the actual methodical doubt.

Only the Cogito resists the ravages of methodical doubt. This method was used by Descartes for the discovery of the Cogito, a concept that expresses, on the one hand, the first, whole, and absolutely true truth ("I think, therefore I am"), and secondly, the fact that this truth specifically concerns the self-conscious...

Plato's Ideal State and the Philosopher Ruler

Motivation: Discontent in Athens

Plato believed that the philosopher is the only one capable of governing an ideal state justly. His philosophy emerged in reaction to the philosophical theories and discontent with the political situation of his time. In 5th century BC Athens, neither the democracy nor the rule of the Thirty Tyrants had been able to govern justly. Plato rejected democracy, which promoted the equality of citizens without regard for knowledge or virtue. He also criticized it because the democracy led by Pericles devolved into the power of a few poorly educated sophists, and the system committed injustices, such as condemning Socrates to death.

The Role of Knowledge and Ideas

Plato argued...