Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Medicine and health sciences for Other courses

Hospital Departments and Medical Specialties

• Dermatology: It treats diseases of the skin.
• Hematology: It studies blood disorders.
• Pharmacy: It dispenses medicines.
• Cardiology: It specializes in the heart.
• Surgery: It performs operations on patients.
• Physiotherapy: It designs special exercises for patients.
• Paediatrics: It deals with sick children.
• Pathology: It studies illnesses and analyses samples.
• Renal Unit: It treats kidney diseases.
• Obstetrics: It specializes in pregnancy and birth.
• Orthopaedics: It treats bones.
• Neurology: It treats disorders of the nervous system.

Medical Professions and Their Roles

1. A paediatrician treats children.
2. A midwife attends births and delivers babies.
3. A cardiologist specializes in illnesses of the heart and blood vessels.
4. A

Why Inform a Patient of Their Diagnosis?

Why is there a tendency to inform the patient of their diagnosis? To settle outstanding issues that can be reconciled with certain persons and to take advantage of the rest of their life.

Stages of Acceptance of Death

Stages of acceptance of death: Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.

What Serves as the Negation of Illness?

What serves as the negation of illness? It is a defense mechanism to give time and to assimilate the new situation.

What Negotiations May Have a Religious Character?

What negotiations may have a religious character? Religious (rites, vows, sacrifices), magic (healers), or supernatural force.

Behaviors in the Terminal Phase of Depression

What behaviors occur in the patient

Inhaled Corticosteroids and Bronchodilators: Administration

In a regimen of inhaled corticosteroids and bronchodilators, bronchodilators should be administered first. Steroids relieve symptoms but do not treat the inflammation.

Difference Between Bronchodilators and Steroidal Anti-Inflammatories

Bronchodilators act by dilating and opening the bronchus. Short-acting medications are used for immediate relief, while long-acting forms are used with scheduled corticosteroids.

Anti-inflammatories eliminate or alleviate inflammation of the bronchi. Steroids are the most widely used anti-inflammatories.

Health Education for Patients on Inhaled Glucocorticoids

• If using a combined regimen of bronchodilators and corticosteroids, inhale the bronchodilator first.

Bowel Elimination Physiology in the Elderly

In the elderly, stools are less frequent and may be harder. Constipation is a common complaint among healthy elderly patients, often without a clear single etiology. Aging produces:

• Slowing of gastrointestinal motility.
• Mucosal and intestinal muscle atrophy.
• Reduced nerve function in the intestine, rectum, and anus.

Subjective Constipation

In the elderly, this is usually related to incorrect assessments or ideas acquired due to cognitive decline.

Manifestations

Unrealistic expectations regarding the quantity and timing of bowel movements, leading to the abuse of laxatives.

Criteria Scores

The elderly person must:

• Recognize their bowel pattern as normal.
• Recognize the negative effects of laxatives.
• Specify activities

Hormone Action and Effects

Hormone action: interaction between hormone and receptor. Effect: the hormonal response generated by the action of the hormone: what it produces (insulin → lower glucose).

Historical Milestones in Insulin

Banting and Best (1920): Insulin isolated. Nobel: MacLeod and Banting. 1945: Sanger purifies protein.

Pancreatic Cells and Insulin Biosynthesis

Cell delta: somatostatin; cell PP: pancreatic polypeptide. Preproinsulin: preproinsulin → proinsulin [1 chain] - (removal of C‑peptide) → insulin (2 chains).

Insulin Receptor and Signaling

Insulin binds receptor (alpha subunit) → tyrosine autophosphorylation on kinase (beta subunit).

Glucose Transporters and Utilization

GLUT1: blood–brain barrier. GLUT3: nerve cells. Arrival...

Verb Aspects

Verb aspects describe the temporal flow or state of an action.

• Inchoative: Marks the beginning of an action. Examples: put, throw, break, start.
• Durative: Indicates the action is ongoing. Examples: to be, go, walk, come, study.
• Completive: Indicates the completion of an action. Example: finish.
• Resultative: Focuses on the result of the action. Examples: have, take, get, make localized.
• Obligation: Expresses necessity. Examples: must, have to.
• Probability: Indicates likelihood. Examples: duty, power, come.

Determiners and Pronouns

• Individual: el, la, los, las.
• Indefinite: a, an, a few, some.
• Demonstrative: this, that, these, those.
• Possessive: my, your, his, ours, yours, theirs; mine, yours, theirs.
• Indefinite Pronouns: one, several, many, every,

Language and Communication

• Accent, cognate, comment on, idiom (frase hecha), mother tongue, proverb (refrán), slang.
• Isolated, cut off, get through (comunicarse), lose signal, on speakerphone, plug in (enchufar), run out of battery, swipe (arrastrar), tag sb (etiquetar), suffer (resentirse).

Sports and Wellbeing

• Cheer (animar), drop out (of a race) (abandonar), get through (to the final) (llegar), sign up, sporty (aficionado al deporte), substitute (suplente), wellbeing (bienestar).
• Come up with (ocurrírsele), end up (acabar), go ahead (seguir), keep track of (controlar), take over (tomar el relevo), work out (calcular).
• Be mindful (ser consciente), cut out (eliminar), enrol (in a class) (apuntarse), gain perspective (lograr perspectiva), get in

Welding and Pipe-fitting in Brazil's Energy Sector

It's my job. There's a big oil and gas industry in Brazil. We also produce a lot of ethanol, so I'm always busy! Most metal pipes and fittings are welded. This means that pipe-fitters and welders work closely together.

The Pipe-fitting and Welding Process

The pipe-fitters read plans for pipe systems, cut and prepare pipes, lay them out, and put all the parts together. They also drill holes for instruments (flow meters, for example) and they assemble flanges, elbows, and tees.

Then I do my work. I weld together sections of pipe. After I weld the pipes, the pipe-fitters assemble them. They use bolts to join the flanged joints. Then inspectors inspect and test the pipes. Finally, workers paint and...

Overcome Problems: Single Denture

Problems and Solutions for a single denture:

1. Maximum base extension
2. Reduction of forces — achieve proper occlusion
3. Esthetics & phonetics due to anterior deep bite
   1. Selective enamel grinding
   2. Crown extension into dentin
   3. Increase overjet within the limits of esthetics & phonetics
4. Techniques and templates
   1. Yurkastas: U-shaped metal occlusal template, 20-degree — detects minor deviations in the occlusal scheme
   2. Swenson: casts mounted on an articulator — denture teeth set on a pencil-marked diagnostic cast as a guide (time-consuming)
   3. Bruce: clear acrylic resin template with pressure-indicating paste placed over the natural teeth
   4. Boucher et al. (et.al): interferences removed, prematurities removed, balanced occlusion

Q: Ceftriaxone and Therapeutic Uses

Ceftriaxone is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic that is widely used in clinical settings due to its broad-spectrum antibacterial activity and convenient once-daily dosing. It is administered parenterally (usually IV or IM) and is especially useful for treating moderate to severe infections.

Mechanism of Action

Ceftriaxone works by inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis. It binds to penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), interfering with the final step of peptidoglycan synthesis, leading to bacterial cell lysis and death.

Therapeutic Uses of Ceftriaxone

Central Nervous System Infections

Bacterial meningitis (especially in children and adults):

• Covers Neisseria meningitidis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus