Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Law for University

What is the Certificate of Origin?

It certifies the product origin on their raw material. It's useful to obtain international trade agreement benefits in the country of destination.

Purpose of the Economic Inconvenience Clause

Summarizes the operation of export or import, specifying the costs incurred and the time it takes to occur.

Why Aren't 100% Risky Events Insured?

There isn't 100% risky events insured because an insurer doesn't want to pay for an insurance knowing that the risk is very high. The buyer of the cargo is responsible for buying or transporting the merchandise taking into account the risks not covered by the insurer.

Three Important Functions Covered by the Incoterms

Determine the moment of risk transference between seller and buyer,...

**Bylaws: The Operating Rules of a Company**

**Company Name**

When choosing a company name, you must consider the following:

• **Subjective Denomination:** If the name includes a person's name, you must obtain their permission.
• **Objective Denomination:** This refers to a specific activity. The activity must be officially included in the articles of association.
• **Trade Name:** This does not refer to a subject or an object.
• *The name cannot be the same as any previously registered name.*

**Purpose**

The purpose is the activity or activities that the company will perform. It must be legal, possible, and certain.

**Registered Office**

The registered office is the official address of the company's headquarters. It can also be the location of the primary place...

Collective Redundancies

Consultation with Worker Representatives

When contemplating collective redundancies, employers must consult worker representatives in a timely manner to reach an agreement. These consultations should explore ways to avoid or minimize redundancies and mitigate their impact through social measures, such as aid for redeployment or retraining.

Member States may allow worker representatives to consult experts, according to national laws and practices.

Information Sharing

To facilitate constructive proposals from worker representatives, employers should provide all relevant information during consultations. This includes written communication of:

• Reasons for projected redundancies
• Number and categories of affected workers
• Total number

Parts of the Process of Marriage Annulment

From the canonical point of view, nullity of marriage implies the absence of a valid marriage as a result of a vice or defect at the time of consent. To obtain this, it is necessary to allege and prove the cause of invalidity. This is essential for the continuation of the nullity process. It can be filed by either spouse and must be submitted to the Church's courts. Once submitted, the process of nullity, which is the set of rules governing matrimonial invalidity, can proceed. It consists of four phases:

Introductory Period

From the filing of the application to the fixing of the formula of doubt.

The petition for annulment is the formal vehicle through which the applicant exercises their action. Colloquially,...

Understanding Installment Sales Contracts

An installment sale contract is an agreement where one party delivers movable property to another, and the recipient is obligated to pay a specified price, either in full or in installments, over a period exceeding three months from the contract's completion. This arrangement must be clearly defined to avoid ambiguity.

Perfection: A contract is considered 'perfected' when it meets all general contractual requirements and the property is delivered to the buyer.

Scope of Implementation

The following are excluded from the scope of installment sales:

• Sales for resale purposes
• Occasional sales for profit
• Sales or chattel mortgages secured by non-possessory pledges on assets
• Installment sales contracts with a value

Understanding Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns in Portuguese help point out people or things in relation to the speaker and listener, or in text and time. Their main functions are:

Key Demonstrative Pronouns

• Este, Esta, Isto (This, These - near the speaker)
• Esse, Essa, Isso (That, Those - near the listener or recently mentioned)
• Aquele, Aquela, Aquilo (That, Those - far from both speaker and listener)

Uses of Este, Esta, Isto (This/These)

• Spatial Reference: Indicates something close to the speaker. Example: Este livro aqui é meu. (This book here is mine.)
• Textual Reference (Cataphoric): Refers to something that will be stated next. Example: Minha opinião é esta: devemos prosseguir. (My opinion is this: we should proceed.)
• Temporal Reference:

Sources of Nationality

Sources of nationality for a natural person can be biological or political:

Biological Sources

Based on the fact of birth, there are two main theories:

Ius Soli:

Nationals of a state are those born within its territory, regardless of the nationality of their parents.

Jus Sanguinis:

Nationals of a state are those whose mother, father, or parents are nationals of that state, regardless of their place of birth.

Political Sources

Establish an artificial link between the individual and the state.

Letter of Naturalization:

Achieved through an administrative act for individuals who meet the legal requirements.

Naturalization by Statutory Grace:

Granted through a law to people who have rendered distinguished service to the country.

Domicile

AENOR, UNE Standards, and Certification Fundamentals

Types of Standardization Bodies and Standards

Standardization activities are categorized based on their scope:

National Standards

These standards are prepared, subject to a period of public review, and sanctioned by a legally recognized body to develop standardization activities at a national level. AENOR (Asociación Española de Normalización y Certificación) is the body recognized by the Spanish public administration to develop standardization activities in Spain.

Regional Standards

Regional standards are developed within the framework of a regional standards body, normally covering a continental area which includes a certain number of national standards bodies. The most recognized regional...

Writing a Professional Complaint Email

Opening Statement

Clearly state the reason for writing.

• "I am writing in connection with my order which arrived..."
• "I am writing to complain about the quality of a product I bought from your website."

Detailing the Complaint

Provide specific details of the issue and what went wrong.

• "The goods were faulty/damaged/in poor condition."
• "There seems to be an error in the invoice/a misunderstanding."
• "The product I received was well below the standard I expected."

Requesting a Resolution

State what you expect to be done to resolve the issue.

• "Please replace the faulty goods as soon as possible."
• "Unless I receive the goods by the end of this week, I will have no choice but to cancel my order."

Closing the Email

End with...

Probation Officer

Investigation and Supervision

Jeremy Bentham

The Panopticon (New Type of Prison Layout)

Anomie/Strain Theory

Excessive Materialism as a Limited Means to Success

Quakers

Hard labor. 13th Amendment -> Section 1 allows prison slavery.

Prisoner vs. prisoner violence: rate of 28 per 1000

50 state systems (92% of all facilities) + federal, private (8%)

Main goal of corrections: to protect the public

(United States) Prison population: 25%

60% on probation in the US system

Intensive supervision, $70 billion, official immunity, absconding --> reasons for probation revocation

School of Thought: Cause and Effect

Positivists, labeling theory --> Stigmatization

Michael Walker

Prison in California, stayed 165 days (6 months), contemporary pain...