Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Law for Baccalaureate

Vocabulary Definitions

• Ability: n. a skill that enables beings to perform tasks. (syn. skill)
• Abuse: n. the act of exceeding use or consumption. (syn. misuse)
• Argument: n. a viewpoint supported by real evidence.
• Behavior: n. a conduct that characterizes living beings and organisms. (syn. conduct)
• Bullying: n. the act of hurting or frightening someone smaller or less powerful.
• Conflict: n. a disagreement, difference or quarrel among people. (ant. harmony)
• Debate: n. a formal discussion of an issue in a given context.
• Feeling: n. an emotion towards a person or thing. (syn. emotion)
• Incident: n. a given event, happening or situation.
• Judgment: n. a decision derived from a particular issue. (syn. conclusion)
• Lonely: adj. characterized by being alone, without

The Rule of Law in Democratic States

Diamond and Morlino highlight the rule of law as the cornerstone of any democratic state. A robust legal system prevents exploitation and protects citizens from government overreach. In states where the law is respected, citizens enjoy free and fair elections, participate in shaping laws and policies, and hold their government accountable. A law-abiding government, in turn, respects public opinion, protects equal rights for all, and remains answerable for any misconduct across its executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Conversely, without the rule of law, democratic institutions weaken, citizen participation diminishes, and corruption flourishes. Many developing nations struggle to establish a...

The US Federal Government System

Division of Powers

The United States employs a federal government, dividing powers between the federal and state governments. This contrasts with confederal systems (like the Confederacy during the Civil War, under the Articles of Confederation), where states hold more power, and unitary systems (like Japan, China, and France), where the national government holds all power.

Some European countries practice home rule, granting limited power to local areas.

National Powers (Federal Government)

The federal government holds supreme authority in:

• Military and War
• Coining Money
• Foreign Affairs and Treaties
• Interstate Commerce

State Powers

States retain control over:

• Education
• Elections
• National Guard (for state emergencies)
• Law

no limit

Affirmative Action

• Affirmative action gives special consideration to traditionally disadvantaged groups to overcome past discrimination.
• The charge that some affirmative action programs discriminate against non-minorities is called reverse discrimination.
• As a result of the Bakke case, race cannot be the sole factor in admissions decisions.
• In Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Pena, the Supreme Court ruled that affirmative action programs cannot use quotas.
• In Hopwood v. State of Texas, the Bakke decision was challenged.
• California's Proposition 209 ended all state-sponsored affirmative action programs.

Bilingual Education

• Bilingual education programs result from government policies favoring multiculturalism.
• In Lau v. Nichols, the Supreme Court ruled children

Violations and Penalties: Mobile Sales

As provided for in Article 16 of the LVA 1/1997, offenses are classified as:

Minor Offenses

• Non-compliance with the schedule.
• Installation of the post before 7:30 AM.
• Sleeping in the vehicle near the area of operation.
• Leaving merchandise in the aisles or spaces between posts.
• Not cleaning the post at the end of the day.
• Using megaphones or loudspeakers unless authorized.
• Parking your vehicle in the area of the post.
• Not showing the license.

Sanctions for minor offenses range from a warning to a fine of up to €150.25.

Serious Offenses

• When the activity is carried out by unauthorized individuals.
• Repeated minor offenses (for the fourth time).
• Violating any condition imposed in the authorization.
• Carrying on the business

Compound Sentences

A compound sentence is formed by two or more independent clauses. Each part of the sentence has its own subject and predicate, and each clause expresses a complete thought. These clauses are typically joined by coordinating conjunctions or punctuation.

Juxtaposed Sentences

Juxtaposed sentences are a form of coordinated propositions. They form a rhythmic period and are separated by punctuation marks, most frequently commas.

Coordinated Sentences

Coordinated sentences can be further divided into subtypes:

• Copulative: Express a sum or series of actions. Copulative conjunctions that join them are "and", "which", and "not".
• Adversative: Express opposition between two ideas.
• Disjunctive: Express mutually exclusive actions (using "or").

UN Resolution on Spain (1946)

This document is an argumentative expository text of a political nature. It is a resolution, an agreement and policy statement adopted by the United Nations on December 12, 1946, signed by the UN General Assembly, representing the member countries.

This resolution recognizes the fascist and unrepresentative nature of the Franco regime, deeming it unacceptable at the UN. It recommends that countries isolate themselves from Spain while this situation persists.

Reasons for Isolating Spain

The resolution is based on several factors:

• An authoritarian government centered on Franco.
• A single far-right party, the FET de las JONS.
• Severe political repression against those opposing the regime.

The resolution criticizes Franco's...

Dispute Resolution Methods

There are several ways to resolve disputes:

• Mediation: A voluntary, nonbinding conciliation process.
• Arbitration: A more formalized process resulting in a binding award that courts in many countries will enforce. Parties must agree to arbitration, and once they do, they cannot withdraw.
• Litigation: The final step in attempting to resolve a dispute.

Legal Concepts in Litigation

• Jurisdiction: The power of a court to hear and decide a case.
• In Personam Jurisdiction: Refers to the court’s power over a specific individual or corporation.
• Venue: The geographical location of a court with competent jurisdiction where a case can be heard.

Legal Doctrines and Clauses

• Forum Non Conveniens: Whenever a case can be properly heard in more

1977 General Elections and Aftermath

General elections were held on June 15, 1977. Election Day passed with absolute normality and a high turnout. The victory went to the Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD), which secured 166 seats, leaving the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) in second place. The so-called "Parents of the Spanish Constitution" were appointed by leaders of different parties: Manuel Fraga from the People's Alliance, Miquel Roca representing the Catalan minority, Gregorio Peces-Barba from the PSOE, Gabriel Cisneros, Pedro Pérez Llorca, and Miguel Herrero y Rodríguez de Miñón from the UCD, and Jordi Solé Tura from the Communist Party of Spain (PCE).

The Courts elected on June 15, 1977, were not formally constituent...