Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Latin for Baccalaureate

The Roman Foundation of Barcino

Despite legends attributing its foundation to Hercules or hypotheses regarding Hamilcar Barca's famous Carthaginian saga, Barcino was established as a Roman law colony. This is confirmed by archaeological evidence and all classical sources. Barcino, officially named Colonia Iulia Augusta Paterna Barcino Faventia, was founded by Emperor Augustus in 14 BC, following the Cantabrian Wars and administrative reforms in the central and northeastern regions of the Iberian Peninsula. It stands out as a significant foundation among other late Roman cities of present-day Catalonia.

Geography, Resources, and Early Economy

The city was built on a small hill, known in the Middle Ages as Mount Taber (15 meters above sea level)...

The Foundations of Roman Civilization

Rome represents a pivotal era in European history, defined by its political, economic, artistic, and military dominance. The city of Rome and its empire expanded to occupy Europe, Asia Minor, and North Africa. Key elements of Roman society were its eminently practical, military, and commercial outlook on life. This pragmatic nature led the Romans to adopt Greek sculpture as the standard for beauty in their art.

Roman Architecture and Urban Legacy

Architecture is the field where Rome left its greatest legacy. The empire covered its territories with new cities, imposing an urban civilization upon conquered lands. Roman mentality dictated that cities be designed according to a pre-established urban model that...

Roman Historiography

Roman literary prose, oratory and historiography occupied the major cultural posts. Historiography was understood as a literary genre rather than as a strictly scientific work. Historians admitted the inclusion of legends, the recreation of some events, the creation of fictitious speeches and letters, and the use of expressive resources typical of rhetoric.

Origins and Early Annalists

The origins are found in the annals of the pontiffs, prepared every year, recording the most relevant facts. When the Romans won the First Punic War, they wrote their history as political propaganda and as a national affirmation. They recorded events year by year, like the pope in his annals. From there they took the name of annalists. Early...

The Jarcha: Oldest Romance Poetry

The Jarcha is a unique form of popular lyric poetry from Muslim Hispania, often attributed to anonymous authors. These short poems served as the final part of a longer poetic form called the muwashshah, with examples dating back to the 10th and 11th centuries.

Jarchas were composed in colloquial Hispano-Arabic dialects or in the Andalusian Romance language, sometimes inaccurately referred to as Mozarabic. They were crafted by educated Arab and Jewish poets who drew inspiration from traditional Romance poetry. Poets could either derive them from popular folklore, adapt them to fit the metrical requirements of the muwashshah, or create new compositions based on established patterns.

Their immense importance lies...

Literary Realism and Naturalism in Spain

Realism emerged in mid-19th century France in the context of an urban society. In Spain, the heyday of the movement occurred in the 1880s. Its aim was to present, as completely as possible, the world of the bourgeoisie. In the last years of the nineteenth century, a shift from realistic techniques led to Naturalism, where the writer sought to analyze the human being scientifically.

Key Characteristics of Realism

• Plausibility and verisimilitude.
• Detailed personalities and social conflicts.
• Linear narrative structure.
• Detailed descriptions.
• Appearance of contrasts.
• Omniscient narrator.
• Colloquial language usage.

Top Authors of Spanish Realism

Benito Pérez Galdós (1834–1920)

Galdós emphasized the creation of complex...

Spanish Poetry of the 1940s and 1950s

Miguel Hernández (1910-1942)

From Perito en lunas and El rayo que no cesa, the poet began to address his core subjects: life, love, and death. He wrote Viento del pueblo, featuring a popular style with patriotic and martial themes. Cancionero y romancero de ausencias is a collection of simple poems about prison, anxiety over the fate of his wife and son, the pain of his deceased child, and death in war-torn Spain.

Poetry of the 1940s: Rooted vs. Uprooted

Two main groups emerged:

Rooted Poetry (Poesía Arraigada)

Poets from the group calling themselves "Juventud Creadora" gathered around the magazines Garcilaso and Escorial. Its features include:

• Heroic or imperialist subjects alongside love and religious themes.

Why Simón Rodríguez Was Considered Bolívar's Most Influential Teacher

Simón Rodríguez profoundly impacted Simón Bolívar by challenging his preconceived notions and exposing him to the realities of colonial life. He instilled in Bolívar an awareness of the injustices faced by slaves, blacks, and browns, prompting Bolívar to seek solutions and ultimately fight for the freedom of the Venezuelan and American peoples. Rodríguez's unconventional approach ignited Bolívar's passion for change.

The Philosophy of Civil Rights Inculcated by Simón Bolívar Rodríguez

Rodríguez believed that individuals must be prepared for citizenship, understanding the rights and responsibilities it entails. His philosophy emphasized:

• Education as a means to

Catullus: The Learned Poet of the Poetae Novi

A group of poets known as the Poetae Novi (New Poets) initiated a trend towards more refined poetic subjectivity, prosodic and metrical perfection, and more sensitive themes such as life, death, and love. Catullus (Gaius Valerius Catullus) is considered the foremost lyric poet of this movement.

Born into a wealthy family from Verona, Catullus possessed great intellect and was called doctus poeta (learned poet) for writing with singular mastery. He delved deeply into the Alexandrian Greek tradition. His surviving work comprises 116 poems, which are typically divided into three groups based on their meter and style:

1. Nugae (Trifles - Poems 1-60): These are shorter poems, primarily in hendecasyllables

Medieval Spanish Literature Foundations

The Jarchas: Early Romance Lyric Poetry

The jarchas are short songs from the 11th and 12th centuries written in Mozarabic. They represent the earliest manifestation of Romance lyric poetry in Spain. They consist of a few verses placed at the end of Arabic and Hebrew poems called moaxajas. In these verses, a woman, often addressing an informant (like her mother or sister), expresses her feelings about love.

Galician-Portuguese Lyric Poetry

Galician-Portuguese lyric poetry was influenced by the learned and courtly poetry cultivated in Provence (France) and developed during the 13th and 14th centuries.

Types of Cantigas

• Cantigas de amigo: Love poems with an intimate tone. Similar to the jarchas, a young woman

José María Iparraguirre (1820-1881): A Life Dedicated to Basque Identity

José María Iparraguirre was born in Urretxu, Gipuzkoa. As a young boy, he moved to Madrid with his parents. At the age of 13, he returned to the Basque Country and fought in favor of the Carlists in defense of the *Fuero* during the First Carlist War. In 1839, after the war's end, he did not approve of the Embrace of Bergara, believing the promise was not kept. Consequently, he had to leave for exile, along with many others.

Exile and the Birth of "Gernikako Arbola"

Abroad, he found protection from a French soprano singer. In addition to learning French, he studied reading, music, and the songs of French poets. In 1852, he returned to the Basque Country and sang "*Gernikako...