Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Primary education

Columbus got the idea of sailing west to get to Asia in 1474 from a letter that Paolo Toscanelli, a Florentine scientist that advised the Portuguese to take this route since it was shorter than the one from Guinea. Columbus first came to John II to offer him to make the journey, but he turned Columbus down. Then he went to the Spanish and after a lot of negotiation they agreed to support the enterprise. On August 3, 1492, Columbus sailed from Palos with three small ships, the Pinta, the Niña and the Santa Maria. The journey was prosperous but toward the end the crew grew anxious as they didn’t know if they would find land. Eventually on October 12, they made landfall in San Salvador. Still thinking that he had arrived in Asia, he sent an...

British Isles: Nations and Historical Development

Nations of the UK and the Political Union

People often call the UK "Britain" or even "England," but that is not strictly correct: England is only one of four nations (England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland), and the full political union was completed in 1801.

Ethnic and Linguistic Differences

Historically, these nations differed ethnically: Ireland, Wales, and the Scottish Highlands were mainly Celtic, while England and the Scottish Lowlands were mostly of Germanic origin.

These differences showed up in languages (Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh versus Germanic dialects that became English), as well as in law, society, and economy.

Modern Identities and Cultural Dominance

Today the differences...

It took some time for U.S. law and politics to connect itself to the global economy. For years, the country was divided over whether those connections were necessary, and, then, which government agency has the obligation to maintain the connection. It came down to the US Supreme Court, who made conclusions that influence international economics to the present day. We'll take a look at the key cases, all of which are still controversial decades later. Since the U.S. dollar remains the currency of choice for world business today, quite a few of America's international business partners know these ageing Supreme Court rulings backwards-and-forwards as well. Knowledge is power, especially when billions of dollars are at stake around the world....

Period of French Revolution

Increasing economic and political problems led Louis XVI to call the Estates-General in 1789 to increase taxes, sparking the revolution.

The National Assembly (1789)

The Third Estate proposed a system where each representative had a vote. The King refused, so members of the Third Estate declared themselves the true representatives, forming the National Assembly and demanding a constitution. The Oath of the Tennis Court (89) saw the Third Estate enclosed until France had a constitution.

Constituent Assembly (1789-1791)

The King agreed, and a Constituent Assembly was elected to write a constitution. Riots began in Paris streets, and on July 14, 1789, the Bastille (a political prison) was attacked. More riots started across...

The Bourbon Dynasty in Spain and the War of Succession

The War of Spanish Succession (1700-1713)

Charles II died in 1700 appointing Philip of Bourbon as his successor. The other European countries did not accept Charles's will and the War of Spanish Succession began. This was an international conflict as well as an internal conflict.

Castile and France supported Philip V whereas the rest of European countries (Britain, the Dutch Republic, Portugal, and Austria) and the Crown of Aragon defended Archduke Charles of Habsburg.

Philip V defeated Valencia and Aragon in the battle of Almansa (1707) and took Catalonia in 1714 and Mallorca in 1715.

The international conflict changed when Charles of Habsburg became the German emperor and lost interest in...

The Second World War (I)

The Combatants

On September 1, 1939, World War II began after Germany invaded Poland. The conflict lasted for almost six years, ending on August 5, 1945. Nations at war were divided into two groups: The Allies, led by France and the United Kingdom, and The Axis Powers, led by Germany and Italy.

The Causes of the War

Several factors contributed to the outbreak of World War II:

• Germany's desire for revenge after the humiliation suffered at the Treaty of Versailles.
• Economic depression.
• The rise of totalitarian regimes.
• Imperialist and militaristic policies: Japan invaded Manchuria (1932), Italy annexed Abyssinia (1935) and Albania (1939), and Germany, claiming territories of German population, annexed Austria (1938) and the Sudetenland,

The Decline of the Hispanic Monarchy

Felipe III had the largest empire in the 17th century. He disliked ruling the country, so he delegated his authority to a valido, which was a kind of prime minister that depended on the king's favor. He faced several problems, but he was able to maintain its extension due to his pacifist policies:

• He signed a peace with England with the Treaty of London (1604).
• The Twelve Years' Truce with the Netherlands from 1609 to 1621 maintained peace, although it was an indirect way of recognizing the Northern Provinces' independence as the truce was not able to be renewed and then at the Thirty Years' War it was confirmed in the Treaty of Westphalia.
• Peace with France was signed in 1598.

During his reign, the Moriscos...

Long-Term Causes of World War II

1. The Treaty of Versailles: In Germany, people resented the Treaty of Versailles, which Hitler had promised to destroy. He broke its conditions, firstly by rebuilding Germany's armed forces. Then, in 1936, he reoccupied the Rhineland, an important industrial region that had been made a demilitarized zone by the treaty.

2. The Failure of the League of Nations: The League of Nations was created to keep the peace, but it was unable to prevent the Second World War. In general, the organization failed because it could not enforce treaties or impose its decisions.

3. Expansionism: Authoritarian regimes in Germany, Italy, and Japan felt that they needed to expand the territory under their control in order to acquire...

XV Century Europe: A Period of Transformation

Population and Economic Growth

The end of major epidemics and improved agricultural practices led to population growth and increased demand. This, in turn, boosted agricultural production and revived sea routes, fostering trade and the growth of cities. The demand for currency markets increased to facilitate these exchanges.

The Rise of the Bourgeoisie and Commercial Capitalism

The expansion of trade and manufacturing led to significant profits for the bourgeoisie, whose economic power was rooted in productive activities. This marked the beginning of commercial capitalism.

The Monarchy of Ferdinand and Isabella

The Union of Castile and Aragon

In 1469, Prince Ferdinand of Aragon married Princess Isabella...

Key Political and Religious Terms in Iran

• Majlis: Unicameral parliament, reformist, vetted members, passes laws that are marginalized by its theocratic nature.
• Expediency Council: Liaison between the Guardian Council and the Majlis. This council makes policy and consists of 32 members who serve five-year terms.
• Guardian Council: The most powerful theological body in Iran, vetting all candidates. Their job is Sharia law oversight, making them too important to create laws. They cross executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
• Assembly of Religious Experts: They meet once a year to choose supreme leaders and are the only branch with the power to oust the Supreme Leader. Members are popularly elected.
• Maslahat: A Sunni concept meaning expediency