Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geography for Secondary education

Forms of Colonial Rule and Administration

Various forms of colonial rule were established:

• Concessions and Spheres of Influence

  Commercial advantages were obtained, where independent countries were divided into areas of influence. This was the case of the assignment of ports for trade in China.

• Protectorates

  The local government kept the internal administration of the country, but the colonial power controlled foreign policy, the army, and the exploitation of certain resources to protect the country from other foreign powers. This was the case, for example, of the British protectorate of Egypt.

• Colonies

  These were territories under the direct sovereignty of the colonial power. They could be:

  • Colonies of Position

    Considered strategic territories controlled

The EU's Industrial Landscape

The EU is one of the most important areas of industrial production, alongside North America and Japan. Industrial activity is the source of its European economic development. The EU's main industrial area runs from the southeast of the UK to northern Italy along the Rhine valley (Germany).

Industrial Production Trends

While old industries are in a time of recession, high-tech industries are undergoing a very dynamic period. These high-tech industries are growing around urban areas and principal nuclei like London, Paris, and around transportation networks and communication links. Industrial production in the EU faces a fundamental problem: a lack of energy resources such as oil and raw materials. The ongoing quest...

European Transport Systems

Road transport boasts a dense network of highways. Railways have lost their dominance, though their role in the transport of goods and passengers remains important. Europe also possesses important merchant naval fleets. Air transport primarily serves passengers.

European Trade Dynamics

Internal trade is conducted with priority among the countries that are part of the EU. Foreign trade is also very important.

EU Transport & Trade Policy

Policy promotes trans-European networks to improve business infrastructures. This policy is based on the principle that member countries constitute a single market. Internal policy is based on the customs union, or the elimination of customs duties. External policy includes a common...

Active Population in Spain

The active population comprises individuals who are able and willing to work. This group is divided into:

• Employed population: People who work and receive compensation.
• Unemployed population: Individuals actively seeking employment.

The inactive population includes those unable to work or who do not receive a salary, such as retirees, individuals under 16, students, homemakers, and the sick.

Primary Sector (5% of Employment)

Agriculture

In Spain, abundant dryland crops (secano) include cereals, vines, and olive trees, predominantly in Castilla-La Mancha, Castilla y León, and Andalusia. Irrigated fruits and vegetables are grown in Andalusia, Valencia, and Murcia.

Livestock

The most abundant livestock is pigs, raised mainly...

The City and the Bourgeoisie

The expansion of agricultural production allowed for the resurgence of urban life. Villages dedicated to population centers and commerce gave rise to cities.

• The Bourgeoisie: Differed from peasants due to their business activities and their legal status of liberty.
• Political Organization: Cities organized themselves politically and obtained privileges from monarchs through charters.

The Economy of the Medieval City

• Guilds: Artisans were organized into corporations called guilds, which held a monopoly over their specific trades.
• Urban Commerce: Music was instrumental, and many cultural developments originated from trade fairs.
• Financial Evolution: The revitalization of currency had significant social and political implications,

The Third World and Underdevelopment

Origins of Underdevelopment

Third World countries are poorer nations in the global South that were formerly colonies of European metropolises. Between 1945 and 1970, these colonies gained independence, often in exchange for their former rulers maintaining economic privileges over them. European countries continued to control and economically exploit these new states, a practice known as neocolonialism. The new states required financial and technical assistance, leading them to receive loans from developed countries. These loans must be returned with interest, creating what is known as foreign debt. As a result, many of these countries remain dependent on developed nations.

Demographic and Social Characteristics

• Population

The Secondary Sector: Construction and Industry

The secondary sector consists of two primary activities: construction and industry.

Construction

Construction is an economic activity focused on creating buildings and infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, and airports.

Industry

The industry component of the secondary sector includes activities related to the processing of raw materials into manufactured goods for direct consumption or for use as raw materials in other industries.

Raw Materials and Their Origins

Raw materials are resources, often produced by nature, that are transformed through industrial processes into products for consumption or further refinement. They are categorized by their source:

• Animal: Leather, wool, milk.
• Plant: Rubber, cotton,

Europe in the Fifteenth Century

Population and Economic Growth

The disappearance of the great epidemics of the previous century (such as the Black Death) and the recovery of crop fields allowed for a significant increase in population.

Increased demand drove manufacturing productivity, which grew gradually. Farm output also expanded.

Sea routes in the Mediterranean Sea, the Baltic, and the North Sea revitalized trade. The expansion of commerce resulted in the increase of craft production and the growth of cities that served as commercial centers and major ports.

The Rise of the Bourgeoisie

The growth of trade and manufacturing activities generated great profits for the bourgeoisie.

The economic power of the bourgeoisie was not based on land ownership,...

Europe's Energy Landscape and Industrial Dynamics

Energy Sources in Europe

• Coal: Now scarce, significantly reducing its participation in energy production and consumption in Europe.
• Oil: Its availability is reduced, and most countries spend considerable sums on importing it.
• Natural Gas: Deposits abound on a smaller scale, and its consumption has experienced remarkable growth thanks to advances in technical production and the creation of a European supply network.
• Nuclear Energy: Concentrated in very few countries; the construction of new power plants is being reconsidered because of its lower impact on global warming.
• Hydroelectricity: Stagnant due to the scarcity of suitable locations for new facilities and criticism received from environmental

Types of Human Migration

By Nature of Migration

• Enforced: Unwanted movement. Example: historical forced shipment of African slaves to the Americas.
• Voluntary: Desired movement. Example: seeking jobs or better wages.

By Duration

• Temporary: For a specific period. Example: for study, work, or seasonal labor.
• Permanent: If the person does not return to their place of origin.

By Geographic Scope

• Internal or National: Movements that take place within a country's borders.
• External or International: Movements to a foreign country.

Contemporary Migration Trends

Internal Migration Patterns

• In developing countries: Farmers often move to cities. This is known as the rural exodus.
• In developed countries: Migration occurs between cities for study or work. Some also retire