Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geography for Secondary education

The Middle Ages

The Middle Ages is a historical period that began with the Fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 A.D. (the 5th century) and ended with the Fall of the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire in 1453 (the 15th century). This period is divided into three stages: The Early Middle Ages, the High Middle Ages, and the Late Middle Ages.

Climate Classification

Climate refers to the typical weather that a place experiences over many years. Different parts of the world can be described as having dry, wet, hot, or cold climates.

Global Transformations: 1870–1991 Historical Dynamics

Population Growth and Urbanization (1870–1914)

Between 1870 and 1914, the European population accelerated its growth, rising from approximately 300 million to 400 million people.

Emigration Abroad: Emigration was favored by improved and less expensive means of transport. It initially originated from:

• The United Kingdom
• Ireland
• Scandinavia

The main destinations for these migrants were the United States, Latin America, Australia, and New Zealand.

Urbanization: Cities significantly increased their population. By the late 19th or early 20th century, cities were home to a third or half of the population, and some major centers, like Paris or London, held over one million people.

Imperialism and Colonialism:

The Crown of Castile (1230–1492)

The Crown of Castile began in 1230 when Fernando III inherited the Kingdom of Castile and the Kingdom of León, uniting them under a single crown.

Institutional Structure of Castile

The territories were governed by shared institutions and laws. The monarch held significant power, able to declare war, make laws, and act as a judge. Key institutions included:

• Parliament (Cortes): Composed of noblemen, clergy, and representatives from cities.
• Royal Council: Advised the King on governance and policy.
• High Court (Audiencia): Held supreme judicial authority.

Municipal Government: The Council was the main governing body, while the Chief Magistrate represented the King in the cities.

Castilian Economy and the Mesta

Following...

Technological and Economic Foundations

Steam Engine: It is an engine powered by steam, typically one in which a sliding piston in a cylinder is moved by the expansive action of the steam generated in a boiler. It was significantly developed by James Watt between 1745 and 1755.

Demographic Transition: This refers to the transition from high birth and death rates to lower birth and death rates as a country develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system, typically beginning with a decline in the death rate.

Capitalism: An economic system in which the means of production are predominantly privately owned. It is an ideology rooted in economic liberalism.

Labor Movements and Social Reform

International Workers' Rights: The first international...

Causes of the Great Depression

• Over-expansion of Credit
• High Capital Surplus
• Industrial Over-expansion
• Technological Unemployment
• Agricultural Over-expansion
• Imbalance in International Trade

A New American Paradox: Breadlines and Soup Kitchens

Although soup kitchens were not unknown to the American lower classes before 1929, they grew as the economic depression intensified and peaked by 1932.

When soup kitchens first appeared, they were run by churches or private charities. The Capuchin Services Center in southeast Detroit, for example, served 1,500 to 3,000 people a day. That center opened on November 2, 1929.

Private volunteers were also important in setting up soup kitchens all over the US. By the mid-1930s, state and federal governments also were...

The natural movement of the Spanish population has experienced three stages in its history, called demographic systems.

Ancient Demographic System

This system refers to pre-industrial societies. In Spain, this system was maintained until the beginning of the 19th century.

Death rates and birth rates were both high and fluctuated rapidly according to natural events, such as drought and disease, to produce a relatively constant and young population.

• Birth rates: Family planning and contraception were virtually nonexistent; therefore, birth rates were essentially only limited by the ability of women to bear children. Children contributed to the economy of the household from an early age. There were no education or entertainment expenses. In addition,

Understanding the Primary Sector

The primary sector includes economic activities related to obtaining resources from nature.

Main Economic Activities

Agriculture: Cultivating the Land

Agriculture is the cultivation of land to obtain:

• Grasses
• Vegetables
• Bushes
• Trees

Livestock Farming: Raising Animals

Livestock farming is the breeding of animals in order to obtain products for human use.

Fishing: Harvesting from Water

Fishing is any activity which obtains natural products from the sea. Products obtained include canned goods, frozen goods, and oils.

Factors Influencing Primary Production

Natural Factors: Climate and Land

Climate: The growth of plants depends on the temperature, humidity of the land, and the amount of light received.

Land Relief: The best lands...

Interspecific Relationships in Communities

Interspecific relationships within communities include:

• Predation: One organism kills and feeds on another.
• Competition: Organisms compete for the same resources (can be interspecific or intraspecific).
• Parasitism: One organism benefits at the expense of another.
• Social Parasitism: One species uses another for its own purposes (e.g., mosquito eggs).
• Commensalism: One organism benefits from another's actions without affecting it (e.g., beetles or vultures benefiting from excrement).
• Mutualism: Two organisms live in harmony (e.g., clownfish and anemones).
• Inquilinism: One organism finds protection from another (e.g., coral).
• Symbiosis: Two species live together to survive (e.g., bees and flowers).

Trophic Levels

Key Factors in Industrial Location

Physical and Environmental Factors

• Raw Materials: The factory needs to be close to these if they are heavy and bulky to transport.
• Energy Supply: This is needed to work the machines in a factory. Early industries were near to coalfields. Nowadays, electricity allows more freedom.
• Natural Routes: Some laws forbid the setting up of industries in places where they could destroy a valuable environment.
• Site and Land: Most industries require large areas of cheap, flat land on which to build their factories.

Human and Economic Factors

• Labour: A suitable labour force is essential. Cost and skill levels are important.
• Transport: A good transport network helps reduce costs and make the movement of materials easier.
• Capital: