Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geography for Baccalaureate

Urban Hierarchy and City Types

Urban hierarchy: The hierarchy is inherent in the urban system: on the one hand the hierarchy within a city and on the other the hierarchy depending on the size of cities.

A) Urban internal hierarchy

A) Urban internal hierarchy: This includes an old historic core (which may be medieval, Roman, or recent), a CBD (Central Business District)—a formed business area where we find tertiary activities—residential areas created to meet the housing demands of different social classes, and rurban (peri-urban/suburban) areas: in these newer zones are integrated residential and dormitory towns; in addition there are industrial sites and areas of special functions such as sports facilities, nursing homes and new green areas....

Characteristics and Constraints of Urban Development

Every city, whether large or small, is characterized by a series of morphological and structural features that logically vary according to the season. Given this evolution, we must analyze the following characteristics and constraints:

Census Data and Reliability

In the ancient and medieval eras, censuses simply did not exist. In the modern age, they were first performed, but only over very long periods and were quite debatable. Only in the contemporary age are censuses considered reliable.

Geographic Location and Urban Development

Geographic location is a fundamental trait that characterizes and conditions the city. The location affects the development of the city; for example, Toledo chose its...

Transportation Systems

Transport is the activity that moves people and goods between different geographical locations. It employs air, sea, or land systems. The transport system is the set of means and facilities that allow for movement; these include mobile media and fixed infrastructure. The importance of transport is due to the roles it plays in political, demographic, social, economic, cultural, and international spheres. It influences territorial organization in two ways.

Modes of Transport

Roads connect various population centers and constitute a key infrastructure for accessibility and territorial articulation. Responsibilities for the network are divided between the state, autonomous communities, and cabildos. The peninsular road network...

Economic Development and Social Changes

After the severe economic crisis that began in 1973, Western economies began a process of recovery and growth, in which Spain participated significantly. At this stage, driven largely by gains from entry into the EEC, Spain narrowed its gap with more advanced countries, positioning itself as the eighth-largest economy in the world.

Despite the strong growth of recent decades, Spain has maintained some structural problems:

• Unemployment: Rates are among the highest in industrialized European countries.
• External Deficit: Remained high due to growing imports of energy and industrial products.
• Technological Gap: Some backwardness persists.
• Market Reliance: Growth has relied heavily on the real estate market.

Demographic

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Language and Linguistic Diversity

Language is the human ability to communicate through words. This ability is exercised differently within each community, leading to the development of diverse languages and dialects.

Linguistic Families, Language, and Dialect

Languages that originate from the same mother tongue form a series of linguistic families, showcasing their inherent affinities.

A language is a system of verbal communication and expression used by a community of speakers. It is characterized by established rules governing its use among educated speakers and is disseminated through education and media.

A dialect is a regional variant of a language, typically with more or less accurate geographical boundaries.

Multilingualism in Europe

The current...

I. Official Records and Key Demographic Concepts

Population Census

A statistical and official document that includes the individual results of the total population of one country at a given time.

Municipal Register (Padrón Municipal)

An administrative record containing the official count of inhabitants of a municipality. Its formation, maintenance, revision, and custody correspond to the municipality, and it is constantly updated.

Civil Registry

The official body that records births, deaths, and changes in the marital status of the population.

Cadastre (Land Registry)

A census and statistical document detailing rustic (rural) and urban properties.

Informal Economy (Underground Economy)

Economic activity conducted fraudulently, regardless of the...

Economic Changes Introduced by Technocrats

The Evolution of Social Structure

Economic growth did not solve the country's imbalances. First, growth was based on the mass exodus of workers from the countryside to cities and overseas—estimated at more than one million people migrating to developed European countries to perform work that natives rejected. This emigration masked huge unemployment figures in the Spanish economy.

Second, economic growth accentuated imbalances in the distribution of wealth, both personal and regional. The maintenance of low wages, the lack of collective bargaining, and a regressive tax system ensured that the standard of living for Spanish workers remained well below that of the rest of Europe.

To make matters worse,...

Human Activity and Water Consumption

Water is an essential resource for human activity. The distribution of its use is as follows:

• Irrigated agriculture consumes 80% of the water in Spain.
• Energy production in power plants uses water, driven by industrial energy demand (6.4%).
• Urban consumption accounts for 14% of total use.
• Waste disposal originates from farming, ranching, urban, and industrial activities.
• Recreational activities include fishing, swimming, and the maintenance of parks.

The Water Balance in Spain

The water balance relates existing water resources to their consumption. In Spain, although this balance is positive, several problems persist:

• Water availability from rivers is limited by irregularity and unequal seasonal distribution.
• Demand

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Language, Dialect, and Speech

Language, Dialect, and Speech

Language

Language is a system that uses a community as a vehicle of communication in a given territory. From a geographical point of view, languages are not uniform.

Dialects: Characteristics and Variations

Varieties of the language are dialects. Their characteristics include:

• Linguistically: Especially pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar.
• Generally, dialects lack a stable standard to determine their proper use.
• Dialects are used, preferably in oral language, in non-formal situations.
• Dialects are often interpreted as incorrect or slang.

Dialects themselves are not uniform; these varieties are called speech (or sociolects/regional varieties).

Hispanic Dialects and Castilian Speech

Northern

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Porfirio Diaz (The Porfiriato)

• Industrial Development: Promoted industrial development through railways, foreign investment, and protectionist policies.
• Economic Growth: Focused on the exploitation of agricultural products and mining, creating an agro-export economy.
• Outward Growth Model: Favored production for export, often neglecting domestic needs.
• Export-Oriented Economy: Relied on the exploitation of natural resources, cheap labor, and foreign capital and technology to increase production.

Francisco Madero

• Mexican Revolution: Initiated the Mexican Revolution, leading to Diaz's resignation.
• Plan de San Luis: Launched the Plan de San Luis to incite revolution.
• Decena Trágica (Ten Tragic Days): Overthrown during the "Decena Trágica," a ten-day

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