Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geography for Baccalaureate

1. The Impact of Post-War Scientific Investment

The current development would not have been possible without the significant investments in research after World War II. The war revealed the immense power of science, leading to increased funding since 1945. However, this has widened the gap between rich and poor countries, as nations like Japan, the USA, Germany, France, and Britain invest more in research than others.

2. Key Areas of Scientific Research

• Chemistry: New materials, plastics, dyes, etc.
• Nuclear Physics: Initially applied to military purposes (atomic bomb), later to energy production.
• Computer Science: Simplifying and accelerating tasks. The invention of the microprocessor in the 1970s led to the personal computer. Applying computer

Spain's Post-Civil War Economy: Autarky and Stagnation

The three-year Civil War severely disrupted the Spanish economy. Agricultural and industrial production declined, and much communication infrastructure was destroyed, along with damaged buildings and manufacturing plants. However, this deterioration of production equipment alone does not fully explain the negative evolution of the Spanish economy in the years after 1939.

The policies of the Francoist authorities consolidated a highly uncompetitive economy characterized by widespread hunger, poverty, influence peddling, and corruption. One of the main objectives of the Franco regime was to achieve economic self-sufficiency, or autarky. The result was a blocking of economic growth and a significant...

Metropolitan Area

Metropolitan Area: An urban area surrounding a central city, administratively encompassing several towns. These towns share economic relations, necessitating joint planning. In Spain, metropolitan areas were formally created in the twentieth century.

Peri-urban Area

Peri-urban Area: The zone where urban sprawl makes it difficult to determine the precise limits of the city. It features mixed land uses and a blend of urban and rural lifestyles.

Old Quarter (Historic Center)

Old Quarter (Historic Center): The part of a city urbanized from its origin until the period of industrialization. It typically occupies a small area but holds significant symbolic and cultural importance.

CBD (Central Business District)

CBD (Central Business District)

Social Actors in Urban Space Production

The production and management of urban space involves a range of social actors, each defending its own interests: landowners, developers, real estate agents, industrial entrepreneurs, citizens, and political powers. Urban planning is responsible for urban spatial organization. This field possesses a theoretical dimension (planning theory) and a practical dimension (urban design), aiming to design new spaces for future growth and transform existing functions to meet the social demands of each historical period.

The Evolution of Urban Planning Stages

Early Planning: 19th to Early 20th Century

Between the second half of the 19th century and the first third of the 20th century, the first attempts at urban planning...

New Sources of Energy (1844–1914)

The period between 1844 and 1914 was defined by the rise of oil and electricity. Electricity offered easy conversion into light, heat, and movement; with the invention of the transformer, it could be transmitted to distant locations. This changed the geography of businesses and organizations while driving down energy costs. It had numerous applications in communications, transportation, lighting, and leisure.

Oil production began in the United States in 1859, initially used for illumination, lubricants, and heating. However, its most significant application became fuel for transport in cars, boats, and aircraft.

The New Means of Transport

During the mid-19th century, major railway networks were built across Europe....

Railroad Construction in Spain (1855-1873)

The laying of the railway network in Spain began in 1855, following the approval of the General Law of Railways.

Stages of Expansion and Crisis

The first major expansion of the route required a much greater mobilization of capital compared to other initiatives of that century. However, the financial crisis of 1866 led to a period of suspension of construction, evidenced by the low returns on rail investment. Profits were very low, and stock values plummeted.

A new stage began in 1873, aimed at completing the layout of the network, which had been paralyzed as a result of the previous crisis that had dissolved most construction companies.

Economic Effects of the 1855 Railway Law

The 1855 law established the...

The Enlightenment Movement

An intellectual and ideological movement emerged in eighteenth-century Europe, based on rationalism (belief in the power of reason), utilitarianism, and the defense of education, the dissemination of scientific knowledge, and technical progress.

The reformists, known as the Enlightened, advocated for:

• Religious tolerance
• Freedom of thought and expression
• Opposition to inherited privileges
• Criticism of clerical power
• Censorship of the Church's excessive political and educational influence
• Rejection of superstitions and traditional prejudices

The introduction of enlightened ideas in Spain was slow and late, largely due to the lack of a thriving middle class and the resistance of ecclesiastical and aristocratic sectors. A primary...

Spanish Urban Development and Metropolitan Growth

Post-Civil War Urban Expansion and the Diffused City

From the mid-1950s, and especially in the 1960s, the main Spanish cities began a tremendous growth. This expansion was driven by population increase and rural-to-urban migration. These new urban areas sometimes merged with neighboring municipalities. While large cities currently have a lower rate of development, expansion continues. This gives rise to the "diffused city," characterized by the formation of peri-urban areas or urban production units that blend land uses and lifestyles of both the countryside and the city.

Components of the Diffused City

The diffused city is divided into different areas:

Residential Zones on the Periphery

These zones...

1. Physical Geography of the Iberian Peninsula

1.3. Terrestrial Relief of Spain and Andalusia

The major sets of terrestrial relief in Spain and Andalusia include:

• The Old Beds: Dating from the Primary Era, these are associated with ancient folds. These large baseboards or shields form the heart of continents or some of their edges. In the Iberian Peninsula, this includes the Plateau (Meseta Central) and its peripheral units.
• The Mountain Ranges: Recent orographical formations (e.g., Alpine folding). These mountains border the Mediterranean (Southern Europe and North Africa) and continue through Asia to the Himalayas. In the Iberian Peninsula, the Betic Cordilleras and the Pyrenees are prominent.
• The Sedimentary Basins: Sunken areas covered with

Spain's Evolving Immigration Landscape

Spain has transformed from a country of emigrants into a country of immigrants, now receiving a very large volume of foreign population.

Categories of Foreign Residents in Spain

The foreign population in Spain can be classified into three main groups:

• Spanish Nationalized Citizens: Individuals who have obtained Spanish nationality after several years of residence in Spain. They enjoy all rights provided by their nationality.
• Legal Residents: Foreigners who have obtained a residence permit. The quota for this group has increased considerably.
• Undocumented Immigrants: Individuals whose entry or stay in Spain is deemed illegal. Their exact number is difficult to quantify due to their irregular situation.

Legal Framework