Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geography for Baccalaureate

The Consolidation of Hegemonic Power (15th-16th Centuries)

The end of the fifteenth century and the beginning of the sixteenth century marked a period when great monarchies consolidated authoritarian hegemonic powers, coinciding with the European Renaissance and the start of colonial expansion.

The Dynastic Union of Castile and Aragon

The Catholic Monarchs (1479–1516)

The reign of the Catholic Monarchs emerged from the marriage of Isabel I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon in 1469. Isabel secured her claim following the War of the Castilian Succession (1474–1479) against Juana la Beltraneja, daughter of Henry IV.

The traditional view holds that this union created the modern state and the unit of Spain, but this is not entirely accurate....

Transportation and Communication in Spain

Functions of Transport

The growing number of exchanges requires rapid, safe, and affordable transport systems.

1. Offsets: Allows for the separation of population between jobs and residence, for work and leisure purposes.
2. Firm Level: Facilitates the movement of workers, ensures the arrival of raw materials, and the distribution of finished goods. A well-connected producer country with good communication fosters the concentration of economic activities. Developed countries have dense and varied transport and communication networks, well-structured, and normally without isolated areas, although these networks are denser in urban and industrialized areas than in rural areas. Poor countries have incomplete and

Charles I of Spain and the War of Spanish Succession

Charles of Austria, under the name of Charles I (1516^[1]-1556), first joined in his person the crowns of Castile and Aragon, and was Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire as Charles V (1519-1558).

The War of Spanish Succession was an international conflict over the succession to the throne of Spain following the death of Charles II. It lasted from 1701 until 1713, although resistance in Catalonia continued until 1714 and in Mallorca until 1715. This war resulted in the establishment of the House of Bourbon in Spain. For this country, it was also a civil war between Bourbon and Austrian supporters belonging to the old Hispanic kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, whose last embers were not extinguished...

The Bronze Age in Spain

The Bronze Age in Spain, also known as the MegaLoad period, is characterized by the discovery of bronze, an alloy of copper and tin. This discovery allowed the manufacture of stronger utensils and weapons. The use of this new metal produced social differences, as shown by the funerary offerings found in tombs. The most representative cultures of this stage are Los Millares and El Argar.

At the end of the second millennium BC, the El Argar culture gradually disappeared, marking the beginning of the final period of the Bronze Age. The area received numerous influences from within. The chief influence would come from the kingdom of Tartessos at the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.

Megalithic Monuments of the Bronze Age

During...

Population Growth in the 18th and 19th Centuries

Since the mid-18th century, the increase in food production made possible a high population growth. Famines disappeared, and the population, better fed, had greater resistance to diseases and epidemics.

This growth was the result of changes in fertility and mortality. In the 18th century, birth rates rose from 32.5 per thousand at the beginning of the century to 37 per thousand at the end, due to the decline in marriage age and the number of celibate individuals, improving the economic situation.

The reduction in mortality was the result of better nutrition. The mortality rate declined by one-third, from around 32 per thousand in 1700 to just above 20 per thousand in the late 19th century.

Life expectancy...

ITEM 4 Medieval: The Crisis of the 14th and 15th Centuries

1. Introduction

Beginning in the late 13th century, European society faced a major crisis due to hunger, disease, and wars. The 14th century saw the start of recovery, with population growth, trade development, and the emergence of cities. The last two centuries of the Middle Ages (14th and 15th) brought significant changes:

• Political: Disappearance of serfdom, birth of nationality, and growth of royal authority.
• Cultural: Emergence of secular thought, leading to religious clashes, emphasis on the individual, and new ideologies like humanism and reason.

The Iberian Peninsula experienced similar trends, including the first universities, development of vernacular literature, and Gothic and...

Answer the following questions:

1. What is the relationship between Posidonia and Caulerpa?
2. Which factors influence human impact on the environment?
3. Which are the main threats to the environment?
4. How do we prevent environmental degradation? (Draw a mind map for the next session)

1. What’s an Ecological Footprint?

The idea of an ecological footprint is basically a measure of how much area is needed to support our lifestyles, how much land is needed to produce all the things we consume, and what is needed to clean up our waste.

Act.3. International Agreements on the Environment

a) Numerous international agreements have been signed aimed at protecting the environment, including agreements to combat climate change; protect the Earth´s ozone layer, manage...

Barcelona's Geographic and Urban Layout

Barcelona is situated between the Mediterranean Sea (southeast) and the Serra de Collserola (northwest), which is part of the Catalan Coastal Range. The city is located by the sea in a small natural harbor, indicating its commercial origins, near a small mountain, Montjuïc.

The Historic Heart: Ciutat Vella

The historic center constitutes a very small part of the modern city. It is divided into two parts by a broad street, La Rambla, which marks the limit of the oldest section. It has a rather irregular flat plan, characterized by narrow streets, high building density, and clustered buildings. The part east of La Rambla is the location of monuments and cultural tourism attractions. The other side of La Rambla,...

The Impact of Developmentalism on Urban Growth

From the second half of the 1950s, an era of strong economic growth and rapid industrialization, known as developmentalism, began. This change had a profound impact on cities.

During this period, initial policies promoted massive state housing subsidies, which fostered the growth of numerous neighborhoods in most cities.

Councils initiated modern municipal urban planning through the General Urban Plan. Land was classified into distinct zones:

• Urban land
• Developable land
• Rustic or undeveloped land

It was a time marked by a significant lack of urban services. While a large number of houses were constructed, the parallel development of essential services lagged behind.

Traffic congestion and circulation issues...

The seventeenth-century crisis affected all of Europe, although in Spain, the impact was enhanced by a political meltdown. The population stagnated during this century in the peninsula, although the incidence varied; the center of Castile suffered a major depopulation and de-urbanization process (except for Madrid), while the periphery was less affected.

Demographic Stagnation and Its Causes

The causes of this stagnation were due to:

• Subsistence crises and epidemics
• The drain of wars in Europe
• Emigration to America
• The expulsion of the Moriscos (Moors)

Agricultural Crisis and Regional Exceptions

In Castile, where the population declined and tax burdens increased over the century, agriculture suffered from a major crisis that led to shifting cultivation...