Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Economics for University

1. BUSINESS AND THE NEW TECHNOLOGIES (TECHNOLOGICAL GROWTH)

Introduction

This study analyzes new technologies, their origins, and their development, exploring the rise of technology and its relationship with businesses and society.

Origin of New Technologies

The technological bubble of the 1990s, marked by the birth of the internet and the end of the Cold War, sparked the development of new technologies. This period led to globalization, with economies striving for technological and economic advancement. High-end computers with operating systems like Windows NT (1990), 95, 98, XP, or IOS emerged, streamlining administrative processes and business operations.

Effects of the New Technologies

The effects of new technologies are evident in both society...

Societal Issues in Global E-commerce

Understanding the pressures that global e-commerce places on contemporary society is critical to being successful in the e-commerce marketplace. The primary societal issues are intellectual property, individual privacy, and public policy.

Academic Disciplines Contributing to E-commerce

The study of e-commerce requires identifying and integrating knowledge from major academic disciplines. There are two primary approaches to e-commerce research: technical and behavioral. Each of these approaches is represented by several academic fields.

Technical Approaches to E-commerce

On the technical side, key contributing disciplines include:

• Computer Scientists: Interested in e-commerce as an application of Internet technology.

The 2008 Economic Crisis and Unemployment

In 2008, a significant economic crisis began, impacting the entire world, especially Europe. The most noticeable consequence has been high unemployment.

Understanding the Unemployment Rate

The unemployment rate is the percentage of the total labor force that is unemployed but actively seeking employment and willing to work.

Unemployment Trends in the European Union (2008-2014)

In the European Union, between the start of the crisis in 2008 and 2013, the unemployment level rose to a rate of 10.9%. However, since 2013, it has begun to decrease, reaching 9.9% by the end of 2014, largely due to the slow recovery of the economy.

European Countries with Varying Unemployment Rates

Currently, countries with lower unemployment...

Chapter Ten: Pricing

Understanding and Capturing Customer Value

What Is a Price?

Price is the amount of money charged for a product or service. It is the sum of all the values that consumers give up in order to gain the benefits of having or using a product or service.

Price is the only element in the marketing mix that produces revenue; all other elements represent costs.

Major Pricing Strategies

Customer Value-Based Pricing

Value-based pricing uses the buyers’ perceptions of value, not the seller's cost, as the key to pricing.

• Value-based pricing is customer-driven.
• Cost-based pricing is product-driven.
• Price is considered before the marketing program is set.

Cost-Based Pricing Process

• Design a good product.
• Determine product costs.
• Set price based on

Antitrust Law: Article 101 and 102

Antitrust law, also known as competition law, addresses anticompetitive behavior through Article 101, which prohibits anticompetitive agreements, and Article 102, which prohibits the abuse of a dominant position.

Market Structures

Monopoly: Characterized by a single agent, heterogeneous products, and significant barriers to entry, which can be legal, natural, or artificial.

Oligopoly: Involves a few agents with substantial market power, heterogeneous products, and barriers to entry that are either artificial or natural.

Monopolistic Competition: Features many agents offering differentiated products.

Perfect Competition: Consists of a large number of agents, homogeneous products, no barriers to entry, and no individual...

The Labor Market: Topic 5

History of Labor Market Regulation

Post-WWII: The Golden Age of Collective Bargaining

Following World War II, Europe and the USA experienced a golden age of collective bargaining.

• The Golden Rule: The increase in wages must keep pace with the increases in productivity.

Labor Regulation in Spain

The Spanish labor market evolved significantly, moving from the dictatorship era to the Moncloa Pacts and the subsequent Estatuto de los Trabajadores (Workers' Statute).

The International Labour Organization (ILO)

Spain joined the ILO in 1951. Founded in 1919 and controlled by the UN, the ILO addresses employment and labor relations. It is a tripartite governance structure composed of government representatives, unions, and employers....

Financial Instruments

Loan

• In a loan, the bank makes available to the customer a fixed amount, and the customer becomes liable to repay that amount plus commission and interest by the agreed deadline.
• A loan is usually a medium to long-term operation, and amortization is typically done through regular payments (monthly, quarterly, or semi-annually). Thus, the client has the opportunity to organize their finances better when planning payments.
• Generally, personal loans are granted to individuals for private use. Therefore, they usually require personal guarantees or collateral (such as pledges or mortgages).
• The granted loan amount is usually deposited into the customer's account, and interest must be paid from day one, calculated on the full amount

Production Strategies and Competitive Advantage Generation

When developing production strategies, there are two main approaches:

1. Hierarchical Approach: Defines competitive strategy first, and based on it, determines production targets.
2. Resource-Based Approach: Focuses on the development and protection of the firm's operational resources for profitability.

Manufacturing Strategy Contribution: Four Attitudes

The contribution of manufacturing strategy can be considered in four ways, based on the company's attitude toward change:

• Passive: Aims to minimize negative impacts.
• Follower Approach: Adopts practices already used by competitors.
• Leadership: Production serves as internal support for the overall business strategy.
• Attitude of Excellence: Production

Taxpayers Who May Be Considered Small

The following are considered small taxpayers:

• Stores
• Kiosks
• Haberdasheries
• Sellers of drinks and meals
• Small industries (homemade clothing, footwear, woodwork)
• Hairdressers
• Garages
• Car parks
• Bars and restaurants
• Rental property owners

All these aforementioned activities must not exceed an annual income of GS. 100,000,000. If you exceed your income in a year, you should change the form of tax and switch to IRACIS. Similarly, when importing or exporting, you must also pay tax on IRACIS.

Law 2421/04 Fiscal Adequacy

New changes:

• New form formats
• New codification of the RUC
• New pay periods - perpetual calendar
• Enabling new network billing PRONET ¨ SETE
• Internet accessory for paying taxes
• Agent software for data (customers and

Active Policies: Encouraging Job Creation and Retention

Active labor market policies focus on promoting recruitment, retention, training, retraining, and job mobility to prevent unemployment and facilitate access to employment for various groups. Both employees and employers benefit from these policies, which emphasize a precautionary approach to address unemployment, particularly long-term unemployment.

Heterogeneity of Measures

These policies employ diverse approaches:

• Work Incentive Type: Measures targeting self-employment and paid employment.
• Target Groups: Youth, women, long-term unemployed (1 year or more), disabled individuals, and immigrants. Intensive programs with well-defined and relatively small target groups tend to be more efficient.