Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Biology for Baccalaureate

GREAT PLANTS (Metaphytes) belong to this group of photosynthesizing multicellular eukaryotic organisms whose cells have cell walls of cellulose. Plants have a biological cycle in which dipohaplonte diploid and haploid phases are distinguished with different development. There are two divisions: Bryophytes and Tracheophytes.

Bryophytes: Simple Plants

Bryophytes are the less evolved plants. They present a thallus-type organization, with no tissues or organs. This group includes mosses and liverworts, where the haploid body is more developed. Bryophytes are considered an evolution of algae.

Tracheophytes: Developed Plants

Tracheophytes are more developed plants; they have tissues and organs. Conducting structures of food substances are known as vascular....

What Nutrients Do Microbes Need for Growth?

Macronutrients to build macromolecules: carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, oxygen. Various micronutrients are also required by microbes, including several metal ions (cations) like K+, Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Fe2+ or Fe3+, Mn2+. Prototrophs synthesize nutrients from inorganic material, while auxotrophs require additional nutrients. Aerobic microbes need oxygen, while anaerobic ones do not. pH and osmotic pressure also affect microbial growth. Different types of media and methods like streak plate, spread plate, and pour plate are used for microbial culture. Antibiotics interfere with various microbial processes like peptidoglycan synthesis, membrane integrity, DNA synthesis, and ribosome function.

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Thalamus

Regulates communication between several parts of the brain and the endocrine system.

Corpus Callosum

Structure made of nerves that bridges two hemispheres.

Hippocampus

Part of the limbic system, responsible for long-term memory.

Cerebellum

Responsible for motion, balance, and new learning. Exterior grey matter, interior grey matter.

Brainstem

Several regions including medulla oblongata (elongates into the spinal column). Location of several centers of involuntary nervous control.

Hypothalamus

Master gland of the endocrine system, controlling most of its activity.

Two Cerebral Hemispheres

Surfaces known as cerebral cortex and comprised of grey matter. Folder structure made of rounded gyri and recessed sulci divide the lobes.

Spinal Cord

Brings messages...

Local Inflammation

1. Occurs when bacteria enter a break in the skin.
2. Inflammatory reaction is initiated by nonspecific mechanisms of phagocytosis and complement activation.
3. Complement activation attracts phagocytes to the area.
4. As inflammation progresses, B cells produce antibodies against bacterial antigens.
5. Attachment of antibodies to antigens amplifies nonspecific responses because of complement activation.
6. Promotes phagocytic activity of neutrophils, macrophages, and monocytes (through opsonization).
7. In the inflamed area, leukocytes attach to the surface of endothelial cells.
8. Move by chemotaxis to the inflamed site.

• Neutrophils arrive first, then monocytes, then T cells.
  • Undergo extravasation (the entire process of movement of leukocytes from the bloodstream

The Circulatory System

The circulatory system is the anatomical structure that includes both the cardiovascular system (which carries and circulates blood) and the lymphatic system (which carries lymph).

Its main function is to transport nutrients, gases, hormones, and blood cells to the body's cells. It also helps fight disease, stabilize body temperature and pH, and maintain homeostasis.

Basic Structures of the Circulatory System

• Arteries
• Veins
• Blood
• Heart
• Capillaries

The Nervous System

The nervous system is a network of ectodermal tissues found in animals. Its basic unit is the neuron. Its main function is to quickly capture and process signals, exerting control and coordination over other body systems to achieve timely and effective interaction with...

Animal Respiration Methods

1. Cutaneous Respiration (Skin)

Many small, less active multicellular animals respire through their skin. This is possible because the ratio between body surface area and body mass is very large. In larger, more active animals, it is sometimes a complementary method. This occurs in amphibians, where cutaneous respiration supplements lung respiration. In amphibians, gas exchange can be performed through the skin because it is well-vascularized and has large glands that keep it very moist. In some fish, skin breathing can occur via the oral mucosa, intestine, swim bladder, or the epidermis of the fins.

2. Gill Respiration

This is characteristic of aquatic animals. In this type of breathing, gas exchange takes place in the...

Asexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction involves a single individual or vegetative parts giving rise to new organisms through mitosis. These offspring are genetically identical and are considered clones. There are several types:

• Bipartition: Organisms divide through a typical mitosis process, resulting in two new individuals of the same size.
• Budding: Daughter cells are formed of different sizes. During mitosis, a bud forms on the parent body, and one of the nuclei migrates to it. When the bud separates, it forms two cells, one larger than the other.
• Multiple Division: Multiple daughter cells are formed. The nucleus of the stem cell divides repeatedly by mitosis, forming a multi-core structure. The cytoplasm is shared, and each core is surrounded

Human Cell Structure

Cell Components

Human cells consist of three main structures:

• Plasma Membrane: The outer membrane protecting the cell, regulating nutrient intake and waste removal.
• Cytoplasm: A water-based solution containing dissolved substances and protein fibers forming the cytoskeleton. Organelles within the cytoplasm include ribosomes, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, vacuoles, and lysosomes.
• Nucleus: The spherical control center containing:
  • Nuclear Membrane: Separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm.
  • Nucleoplasm: The watery solution inside the nucleus.
  • Chromatin: Genetic material (DNA) responsible for cell control, organized into chromosomes.
  • Nucleolus: Composed of RNA and proteins, responsible for ribosome organization.

Lipids

Functions of Lipids

• Energy Storage: Lipids serve as the primary energy reserve in the body.
• Structural Components: Lipid bilayers form the plasma membrane and other cell organelles.
• Protection: Lipids cushion vital organs, like the kidneys, and protect body surfaces (e.g., waxes on hair and fruit).
• Biocatalysis: While not all lipids are biocatalysts themselves, some play a role in biocatalyst synthesis.
• Transport: Lipids are emulsified and transported from the intestine to either storage in adipose tissue or sites of utilization.

Amino Acids

Amino acids are small organic compounds characterized by a carboxyl group and an amino group. They are solid, crystalline, water-soluble, have high melting points, and exhibit optical activity. Primary amino...

Creationism

The origin of each species was due to a specific act of creation.

Fixism

Species remain unchanged over time.

Catastrophism

During the course of Earth's history, catastrophes happened, causing the extinction of certain species.

Biological Evolution

The process of transformation from one species into another by the accumulation of differences that appear between one generation and the next.

Lamarckism

Lamarck argued that God creates nature and this gives rise to species because of its tendency toward complexity and adaptations caused by environmental variations.

Darwinism

• High reproductive capacity: Since food resources are limited, it does not increase indefinitely.
• Variation in offspring: The descendants of sexually reproducing organisms are