Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Biology for Baccalaureate

Muscles of the Head and Neck

Facial Muscles

• Frontalis
• Orbicularis oculi
• Nasalis
• Zygomaticus major
• Zygomaticus minor
• Levator labii superioris
• Levator anguli oris
• Orbicularis oris
• Depressor labii inferioris
• Depressor anguli oris
• Mentalis
• Buccinator
• Occipitalis

Muscles of Mastication

• Masseter
• Temporalis

Neck Muscles

• Platysma
• Sternocleidomastoid
  • Origin: Sternum and clavicle
  • Insertion: Mastoid process of the temporal bone
  • Action: (Not specified)
  • Nerve: CN XI (Accessory nerve)
• Omohyoid
• Sternohyoid
• Sternothyroid
• Thyrohyoid
• Scalenes

Anatomy of the Eye

Extrinsic Eye Muscles

• Superior rectus: CN III (Oculomotor nerve)
• Inferior rectus: CN III (Oculomotor nerve)
• Lateral rectus: CN VI (Abducens nerve)
• Medial rectus: CN III (Oculomotor nerve)
• Superior oblique: CN IV (Trochlear nerve)
• Inferior

Complete the Statements

• 1. The body builds immunity through memory cells and vaccination.
• 2. Challenges to the immune system include allergies, cancer, immune deficiency, and autoimmune disease.
• 3. Causes of noninfectious diseases include hereditary and environmental factors.
• 4. Causes of infectious diseases include viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites.
• 5. Infectious diseases are transmitted via infected objects, air, animals, and contaminated food.
• 6. The difference between infectious and noninfectious diseases is that infectious diseases can be transmitted to other people.

Label the Type of Pathogen

• 1. This microorganism is caused by the transfer of body fluids from an infected person, and there is no known cure: Virus
• 2. They decompose organisms

Human Reproductive System

Female Reproductive System

• Egg cells: Produced in the ovaries. Inside each ovary are oocytes, which are immature eggs.
• Ovaries: Contain the follicles where egg maturation occurs until release into the oviduct.
• Fallopian tubes: Tubes that transport eggs from the ovaries to the uterus.
• Uterus: The organ where the fetus develops before birth.
• Myometrium: The middle layer of the uterine wall; its main function is to induce uterine contractions.
• Endometrium: The innermost glandular layer of the uterus.
• Cervix: The lower end of the uterus that leads to the vagina.
• Vagina: An elastic, muscular tube (10-12 cm) connecting the cervix to the vulva and the exterior of the body.
• Vulva: The female external genitals.
• Clitoris: The female's

Main Characteristics of Mammals

In general, mammals are characterized by the following:

• They are warm-blooded; their body temperature is constant.
• Mothers have mammary glands that produce milk for their young.
• The mouth is surrounded by lips, allowing young to suckle.
• They have abundant glands (sebaceous, sweat, and odoriferous) and are generally covered in fur, which they shed periodically.
• They have teeth to chew food.
• They have pulmonary respiration.
• Circulation is double (pulmonary and general).
• Most are viviparous: The embryo develops inside the mother and is nourished through the placenta.

Mammals are among the most highly evolved animals. They can live on land, fly, or live in the water.

Here, we will examine in more detail some common characteristics...

Spermatogenesis vs. Oogenesis

• Nutritive material accumulates more during oogenesis than in spermatogenesis.
• Cells resulting from oogenesis vary in size because the nutritive material is not distributed equitably.
• The formation of sperm requires a differentiation process to obtain functional gametes, which does not occur in oogenesis.

Differences Between Embryo and Fetus

Organogenesis, the formation of organs, occurs in the first trimester of pregnancy; at this stage, the developing organism is considered an embryo. From the second trimester onwards, it is classified as a fetus.

The Zygote

In biology, a zygote (also known as a fertilized egg) is the cell resulting from the union of male and female gametes during sexual reproduction in organisms such...

HIV and AIDS: An Introduction

AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) is caused by infection with the retrovirus HIV. This virus attacks and destroys T4 lymphocytes and macrophages. Affected individuals have a depressed immune system, which can lead to certain types of cancers.

Development of the Disease

HIV is found in the blood and other bodily fluids of infected persons. Transmission to a healthy person can occur through various routes. These include contaminated blood transfusions and sexual intercourse between an infected and healthy individual.

Once HIV enters the blood of a new host, it joins T cells and penetrates inside. There, a large number of viruses are created, ultimately destroying the infected cell.

AIDS: Treatment and Prevention

There...

Immunology

By removing serum from pustules of the udder of a cow and injecting it into human skin, an individual suffered from a mild illness but never acquired smallpox. It was the first experiment of active immunization.

1. The Body's Defenses

All organisms have developed mechanisms of defense against the invasion of pathogens. These mechanisms may be nonspecific, preventing entry into the body or destroying them quickly, or very specific, which is known as the immune response.

1.1 Nonspecific Defense Mechanisms

These act against any organism or foreign substance. They are of three types:

a) Natural Barriers: Skin and secretions from the mucosal surfaces.

• Skin is a mechanical barrier because its outermost stratum corneum is fully keratinized.
• It

Public Health Protection Strategies

Water Treatment and Disinfection

Water must be potabilized (made safe for drinking). This involves two main processes:

1. Pretreatment: This process is intended for physical-chemical correction and the removal of solid particles (e.g., decantation, filtration, aeration).
2. Disinfection: The objective is the elimination of pathogenic microorganisms. Disinfection may be done using chlorine, ozone, or ultraviolet radiation.

Waste Management and Treatment

Wastewater: This includes domestic and industrial sources, rainwater, and street washings. This water needs to undergo a preliminary purification treatment to remove all hazardous components.

Solid Waste: Municipal and industrial solid waste is collected and transported...

Organs of the Immune System

• Bone Marrow: Found inside bones, it contains stem cell precursors for all blood cells. B lymphocytes mature here.
• Thymus: Cells from the bone marrow migrate here to divide, proliferate, and mature into T lymphocytes.
• Spleen: An organ that filters blood and accumulates immune cells.
• Lymph Nodes: Lumps along lymphatic vessels that filter and purify lymph, which is rich in lymphocytes.
• Lymphoepithelial Structures: Clusters of immune lymphocytes, such as Peyer's patches, the appendix, and tonsils.

The Immune Cell

B Lymphocytes

These cells originate and mature in the bone marrow. They are responsible for the humoral response and recognize antigens through specific receptors.

T Lymphocytes

Generated in the bone marrow but matured...

The Cell Cycle

Cell division allows a single cell to produce two identical daughter cells. This process involves:

• Doubling genetic material: The DNA is replicated and divided between daughter cells.
• Cytoplasmic division: The cell splits its cytoplasm.

The cell cycle is the sequence of events a cell undergoes from its formation until it divides into two new cells. In eukaryotic cells, the cycle is divided into two main stages: Interphase, where the cell grows and duplicates its genetic material, and the M phase, which includes mitosis and meiosis. The total duration of the cycle depends on the length of the interphase.

Interphase

Interphase is the period between successive mitoses. During this time, there is high metabolic activity as the cell grows...