Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Baccalaureate

English Conditionals

• 0 Conditional: If + Present Simple + Present Simple
• 1st Conditional: If + Present Simple + will + infinitive
• 2nd Conditional: If + Past Simple + would + infinitive
• 3rd Conditional: If + Past Perfect + would have + past participle

Mixed Conditionals

• 3rd + 2nd Conditional: If + Past Perfect + would + base verb
• 2nd + 3rd Conditional: If + Past Simple + would have + past participle

If Only / I Wish

• 1. If only / I wish + Past Simple: Used for desires regarding the present or future.
• 2. If only / I wish + would + infinitive: Used when you want a near-future situation to change (often expresses annoyance).
• 3. If only / I wish + Past Perfect: Used to express regret or past wishes.

Alternatives to "If"

• Whether: si
• In case: en caso de
• As long as:

Essential English Connectors and Their Meanings

Here's a list of common English connectors with their Spanish translations:

• First of all - En primer lugar
• In my opinion - En mi opinión
• Personally - Personalmente
• As far as I am concerned - Por lo que a mí respecta
• From my point of view - Bajo mi punto de vista
• To begin with - Para empezar
• Firstly - Primeramente
• Secondly - En segundo lugar
• That's why - Esto es por lo que
• Therefore - Por lo tanto
• As a result of - Como resultado
• Consequently - En consecuencia
• As - Como
• So - Así que
• Whereas - Mientras que
• So...that... - Tan...que...
• Such a...that... - Tan...que...
• On the one hand - Por una parte
• However/Nevertheless - Sin embargo
• Anyhow - De todas formas
• Anyway - De cualquier manera
• In spite of/Despite - A pesar de
• On

Key Definitions: Science, Security, and Social Terms

Scientific and Medical Vocabulary

Acid

A liquid chemical that can burn what it touches.

Bacteria

The simplest and smallest forms of life, some of which can cause diseases.

Biology

The scientific study of all living things (plants and animals).

Cancer

A diseased growth in the body which can cause death.

Gene

An extremely small chemical unit which passes qualities from parents to children.

Genetics

The study of genes and how they work.

Mathematics

The science of numbers.

Physics

The scientific study of light, heat, and sound.

Virus

A simple organism smaller than bacteria, which causes infectious diseases.

Security, Technology, and Finance Terms

Airlock

A small room with an airtight door at each end.

Auction

A sale... Continue reading "Essential Vocabulary: Science, Security, and Social Terms" »

Are Young People Fashion Victims?

The statement suggests that young people are all fashion victims. It is true that young people generally like fashionable clothes and sometimes spend a lot of money on them. But does that make us fashion victims?

Arguments for Following Fashion Trends

On the one hand, many of us like to look stylish and fashionable. Consequently, many people buy clothes which they have seen advertised in magazines or on TV. Furthermore, many of us like to wear the same things as our friends. This means that we sometimes feel under pressure to spend lots of money on all the latest trends.

Arguments for Individual Style

On the other hand, a lot of young people want to be different. For this reason, many young people have a unique... Continue reading "Modern Debates: Fashion, Ethics, Energy, and E-Commerce" »

Augustine on Skepticism and Truth

Academic — in his Counter (or against the Academics) — Augustine criticizes scholars such as Carneades, Arcesilaus and the successors of Plato's Academy who held the position of philosophical skepticism. According to Augustine, that form of skepticism had stripped Platonism of its ascetic and religious character and upheld the claim that it is not really possible to know.

License, an Academic contemporary of Augustine, stated that to achieve happiness it is enough to seek the truth; there was no need to know it. Given this interpretation of Platonism, Augustine — responding to Academic skepticism — uses an argument similar to the one Plato employed against the Sophists: how can those who deny the possibility

English Grammar Mastery

Passive Voice Transformations

Passive Voice:

• It breaks = It is broken
• It is breaking = It is being broken
• It broke = It was broken
• It was breaking = It was being broken
• Have/Has broken = Has/Have been broken
• Had broken = Had been broken
• Will break = Will be broken

Reported Speech and Tense Shifts

In Reported Speech, tenses shift: Present Simple becomes Past Simple; Present Continuous becomes Past Continuous.

Using So and Such

• So + adjective + that
• Such + a/an + adjective + singular noun
• Such + adjective + plural noun
• So many/much

Sentence Inversion Structures

Inversion: Not until / Only when + normal clause + inversion; Not only / Never / No sooner / Hardly + inversion + normal clause (auxiliary + subject + verb).

Conditional Sentences

• Zero

Relative Clauses

Defining vs. Non-Defining

• **Defining relative clauses** (no commas): Provide essential information to identify the noun.
• **Non-defining relative clauses** (commas): Add extra, non-essential information.

Types of Relative Clauses

• People: *who* and *that*
• Things: *which* and *that*
• Places: *where*
• Times: *when*
• Possession: *whose*

Formal vs. Informal Structure

• **Formal:** The preposition precedes the relative pronoun, and *whom* is used instead of *who*.
• **Informal:** The preposition follows the verb.

Connectors

• **Addition:** *also*, *in addition*, *as well as*, *besides*
• **Contrast:** *but*, *however*, *although*, *while*, *even though*
• **Others:** *in conclusion*, *it is important to*, *in my opinion*

Verb Tenses and Forms

• **Stative verbs**

Meeting an Old Friend

Meeting an old friend:

• Her parents sold the house and moved to Florida.
• Collaborated with an organization that built new schools.
• They are good friends and they call each other occasionally.
• Not seriously, he's not ready for a commitment.
• When there aren't many people in the club.
• In spite of her parents' opposition.
• She'll spend most of the time in the city after a short visit to Florida.
• To help the children who suffered the impact of Hurricane Katrina.

Gourmet Garbage

Gourmet Garbage:

• Even though they are in brand new condition.
• He eats the food that he has in his refrigerator.
• A market where people donate things they no longer want.
• It is a way to fight the system.
• By using bicycles.
• Doesn't eat meat, eggs, or milk products.
• Are not