The Unification of Germany and the 1848 Revolutions

German Unification

German nationalist sentiment emerged from the rejection of foreign occupation by Napoleonic troops. Two key Romantic thinkers influenced this movement:

• Herder: Introduced the concept of Volkgeist, defining the German nation.
• Fichte: Argued that the borders of a nation should be defined by language, claiming all German-speaking territories as part of Germany.

Phases of German Unification

The duchies of Holstein and Schleswig were under Danish sovereignty following the Congress of Vienna. Upon the death of King Frederick VII of Denmark in 1863, who died childless, the Germanic Confederation claimed the two duchies. Prussia and Austria joined forces to defeat Denmark in 1864. The conflict concluded with Prussia administering Schleswig and Austria administering Holstein.

In 1866, Prussia confronted Austria, as the latter held significant power, threatening Prussian hegemony and the goal of German unification.

The Paris Commune

The Paris Commune of 1871 stands as a major revolutionary event in history. For the first time, the proletariat overthrew the established power, formed their own governing bodies, and replaced the bourgeois-capitalist state. This frightened the capitalist class, who feared the loss of their economic and social privileges.

The Revolutions of 1848

France

Louis Philippe d'Orleans ruled France, becoming increasingly unpopular due to his absolutist tendencies. The ban of a scheduled Republican meeting on the Champs-Élysées on February 22, 1848, triggered a revolt. The uprising was so significant that it forced the King's abdication, leading to elections for the French Republic. The conservative Louis Napoleon won the election and later established an empire from 1851 to 1871.

Austria

The revolt led to the dismissal of Chancellor Metternich and the subsequent establishment of a constitutional parliamentary monarchy under Francis Joseph.

Prussia, Hanover, and Bavaria

Rebellions occurred across these regions; however, the old order was largely restored, except in Prussia, where liberalism triumphed.

Italy

Uprisings took place in the Kingdom of Piedmont, Naples, and the Papal States. Most failed, except in Piedmont, where a conservative regime was established.