Tsarist Russia to Bolshevik Victory: Revolution & Civil War
Tsarist Russia: An Absolute Monarchy
In Tsarist Russia, the Tsar maintained absolute power, exercising unlimited authority backed by the military nobility and the Orthodox Church. A parliament (Duma) existed but had very limited power. There was no political freedom, and repression was strong. The economy was primarily agricultural, although industrialization had begun (railways, heavy industry), leading to a growing working population. Much of the capital was foreign-owned, and there was a lack of a strong entrepreneurial bourgeoisie. From the late nineteenth century, political forces opposed to the Tsarist regime emerged, including bourgeois parties, peasant parties (led by Kerensky), and workers' parties (Mensheviks and Bolsheviks, the latter led by Lenin).
The February Revolution of 1917
In 1914, Russia entered World War I unprepared. Military defeats and widespread hunger created unrest, strikes, and demonstrations. Harsh repression led the opposition to unite against the Tsar. The 1917 Revolution began after demonstrations on February 23rd, calling for peace and bread. A general strike and riots erupted on February 26th, with soldiers refusing to fire on protestors.
On February 27th, a Provisional Government led by Kerensky was established, aiming for a political system that would require the Tsar to abdicate. However, this government lacked authority throughout the territory. Workers, soldiers, and peasants organized into Soviets and formed their own militia, the Red Guard. The Bolsheviks gained support within the Soviets because their goals included withdrawing from the war, improving living conditions for workers, and redistributing land to the peasants.
The Civil War and War Communism
By early 1918, the revolution had triumphed. Tsarist supporters and advocates of a liberal political system attempted to overthrow the revolution by force. The country became divided, with two main factions: the Bolsheviks (Red Army) and the counter-revolutionaries (White Army). The Civil War lasted three years (1918-1921) and ended with a Bolshevik victory, primarily due to the organizational work of Trotsky in the Red Army. During the war, the government adopted an economic policy known as War Communism. This stage, under Lenin, involved the dictatorship of the proletariat: centralization of decision-making in the hands of the Communist Party leadership and the banning of other parties. There were protests, and it was a time of hunger and cold.