Tsarist Russia: Autocracy, Revolution and the Road to 1917
Tsarism in Tsarist Russia: During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Russia remained an absolute monarchy. The Tsar governed and was supported by the nobility, the Orthodox Church, the army and the bureaucracy. There was no parliament (the Duma) and political freedoms were severely restricted.
The Economic and Social Context
The Russian economy was fundamentally agrarian. Industrialization came late and depended heavily on foreign capital and state initiative. In the last decades of the 19th century, various political forces emerged in opposition to the Tsarist regime: the bourgeoisie, the peasants (led by Krensky) and the workers. Two main currents appeared among the workers: the Mensheviks (moderates) and the Bolsheviks (radicals, led by Lenin).
The Revolution of 1905
The Revolution of 1905 was triggered by the defeat of the Russian army by Japan in the Russo-Japanese War, a conflict that reflected Russia's imperial expansion into Asia. The defeat, together with widespread unrest caused by the economic crisis, produced a wave of discontent throughout the country.
Demonstrators demanded the destruction of the autocracy and the Tsar, and denounced the government, the police and the military. The Tsar's response was violent: the repression culminated in the massacre of Bloody Sunday, in which numerous people were killed. Workers and peasants organized Soviets (popular councils), which became organizations of great importance and a foreshadowing of the future. The Tsar was forced to make some concessions. On October 1905 he issued the October Manifesto, which granted civil liberties and established the Duma. However, the promise of universal suffrage was not fulfilled, and the Tsar retained effective control over the government and the Duma.
The February Revolution of 1917
The February Revolution of 1917: In 1917, Russia had entered the First World War, and the repression favored the growth of opposition to the Tsar. The revolution began after a demonstration on 23 February (8 March in the Gregorian calendar) in Petrograd (St. Petersburg). On 25 February the situation escalated, and on 26 February a general strike spread, and mutinies followed. On 27 February, a Provisional Government was formed, led by moderate figures such as Krensky, who became the most prominent. The Provisional Government sought to install a parliamentary political system, and the Tsar was forced to abdicate.
The Provisional Government, however, failed to address the nation's most urgent problems and was forced to share power with the Soviets, who gained influence rapidly. The Soviets even organized their own armed militia (the Red Guard). The Bolsheviks soon gained support among the population, capitalizing on popular discontent, the desire for peace, and the demands of workers and peasants for better living conditions, land redistribution and recognition of national minorities.