Thomas Aquinas: Ethics, Natural Law, and Political Philosophy

Ethics and Politics in the Thought of Saint Thomas Aquinas

Saint Thomas Aquinas follows Aristotle in his moral doctrine. His core idea is that man must identify his ultimate end, which is happiness. For Aquinas, true happiness is found in the contemplation of God. To achieve this, we must follow the natural law, which is a manifestation of the divine law. This law directs man toward his authentic nature and fulfills his ultimate purpose. This nature is universal and unchanging.

This moral doctrine remains the foundation of the Catholic Church.

The Theory of Iusnaturalism

Positive laws (enacted by the legislature) should be based on natural law. If they contradict it, they must be disobeyed, a concept known as iusnaturalism.

For Aquinas, what is natural is good, and any deviation from that end is evil. Therefore, evil arises from our freedom, as God created us free—distinct from all other creatures.

Political Philosophy

Regarding politics, Aquinas follows Aristotle. Sociality is natural, and we must organize a society and a government. The state promotes the common good, and political power ultimately comes from God.

Structure of the Summa Theologica

The Summa Theologica is divided into articles that provide evidence for and against specific arguments. The structure includes:

• The Title: Presented in question form.
• Objections: Arguments against the author's stance.
• Sed Contra: Arguments supporting the author.
• Respondeo: The author's solution and expression of doctrine.
• Response to Objections: Addressing the counterarguments.

Moral Theology and Law

Question 94 is a central part of moral theology. Aquinas's moral philosophy is understood through two lenses: a personal view and the tension between reason and faith.

Aquinas categorizes different types of law:

• Eternal Law: God governs all actions and movements.
• Moral Law: God's way of guiding human conduct.
• Positive Law: Laws created by humans.

Article 2: The Moral Order

Aquinas presents a parallelism between the order of knowledge and the moral order. The first principle of the moral order is self-evident: "Good is to be done and pursued, and evil is to be avoided."

From this first precept, other natural inclinations derive:

1. Substance: Man should retain his existence.
2. Animal: Man must preserve life and the species.
3. Rational: Man must seek the truth and live in society.

Natural law is a provision that includes several precepts inculcated as synderesis. The application of these precepts is the creative act of conscience.