State Organization and Reforms of the Catholic Monarchs
Organization of the State
The monarchy was authoritarian, strengthening existing institutions and creating new ones to centralize power. The main measures included:
1. Central Government Reform
Councils were established with advisory status, most notably the Royal Council (Council of Castile). Additional councils were created for Aragon, the Indies, finance, and military orders, assuming functions previously held by the Cortes.
2. Territorial Administration
A viceroy was appointed in each territory of the Crown of Aragon. This official represented the crown directly and sparked widespread protests, particularly in Catalonia.
3. Judicial Organization
Audiences were established to standardize justice. In Castile, the first two were located in Valladolid and Granada. In Aragon, these had less impact due to the significant privileges held by local authorities.
4. Fiscal and Tax Reform
The crown recovered tax revenues previously attributed to nobles and the clergy, while generalizing taxes such as the sales tax.
5. Professional Army
The consolidation of a professional army reduced dependence on the nobility and provided the crown with the power to enforce its decisions, a process solidified during the War of Granada.
6. Municipal Control
The crown generalized the appointment of magistrates and created the Holy Brotherhood to suppress banditry and oversee local order.
7. Control of the Nobility
While force was occasionally used in Galicia and Andalusia, the crown primarily neutralized the political power of the nobles through peaceful means, while respecting their economic and social status.
8. Control of the Clergy
The Catholic Monarchs secured the right of presentation to suggest the appointment of bishops. Furthermore, Ferdinand was appointed Grand Master of all military orders, and Cardinal Cisneros was tasked with reforming degraded religious orders.
9. Religious Unity
The monarchs believed that a uniform population was more stable and united. This led to the creation of the Inquisition in 1478, with Fray Tomás de Torquemada serving as the first inquisitor. Initially focused on monitoring converts, it eventually pursued Jewish and Muslim practitioners, heretics, and others to maintain Catholic orthodoxy. The Inquisition, characterized by anonymous accusations and the use of torture, contributed to the Black Legend of Spain in Europe.
In 1492, the monarchs issued a decree giving Jews four months to convert to Christianity or face exile. Between 100,000 and 150,000 people chose to leave, primarily for North Africa.