The Spanish War of Independence: Causes, Conflict, and the 1812 Constitution

The Spanish War of Independence: The Events of Bayonne

The political situation in Spain in March 1808 was unprecedented. Ferdinand VII managed to dethrone his father, Charles IV, in the **Riot of Aranjuez**. Napoleon became the arbiter of the dispute at **Bayonne**. Attracted there, Charles IV and Ferdinand VII ceded the right to the Spanish crown to Napoleon, who subsequently gave it to his brother, **Joseph I**. Napoleon approved the **Statute of Bayonne** (or *Letter of Bayonne*) in 1808.

The Conduct of the War (1808-1814)

Napoleon, while at Bayonne, considered the Spanish problem solved. However, on **2 May**, the people of Madrid rebelled. The French authorities shot the prisoners the following day, provoking general indignation. Popular uprisings spread across the country. Local and provincial juntas were created, and the **Central Supreme Junta** assumed sovereignty in the absence of Ferdinand VII.

Though many places were besieged, resistance held. The French army was defeated at the **Battle of Bailén**, forcing Joseph I to leave Madrid by the end of 1808. Napoleon himself then entered Spain. Most of the peninsula was occupied after the **Battle of Ocaña**. **Cádiz** became the center of resistance.

Military Resistance: A Twofold Approach

The military resistance took two forms:

• In many places, **guerrillas** emerged, harassing the French, hampering supplies, and demoralizing them.
• From Portugal, an **allied army** led by the **Duke of Wellington** went on the offensive, achieving victory in **Los Arapiles** (Salamanca).

The French were beaten in their retreat at **Vitoria and San Marcial**. In the end, Napoleon signed the **Treaty of Valençay** with Ferdinand VII, which formally ended the war.

The Cortes of Cádiz and the Liberal Reforms

The **Supreme Central Junta** called for the gathering of the Cortes, which first met in 1810. In Cádiz, the Cortes proclaimed **national sovereignty**. Members undertook the drafting of the **Constitution of 1812**.

They adopted a series of decrees that guaranteed the **freedom of the press**, abolished the **Inquisition** and the **guilds** (*gremios*), and established the **freedom of industry and commerce**, effectively ending the Old Regime.

Despite the opposition from the absolutist group, which forced some concessions (such as compulsory Catholicism), the tone of the Constitution was markedly **liberal**. It adopted a Declaration of Rights, limited the royal prerogative, and instituted the division of powers.