The Spanish Transition: From Absolute Monarchy to Liberalism

A) The Crisis of the Old Regime

The bourgeoisie spearheaded a transformation of immense scope, dismantling the political and social order by suppressing the absolute monarchy. Consequently, the traditional estate society gave way to a class-based society, and the bourgeois mentality replaced the criteria of the old aristocratic regime.

Liberalism became the foundational doctrine for the bourgeoisie, introducing a new model of political and social organization born from the French Revolution. The existence of a written constitution justified the new bourgeois state, characterized by:

• Division of powers: Executive, legislative, and judicial.
• National sovereignty: The source of political authority.
• Legal equality: Equal rights for all citizens and the exercise of individual freedoms.

These changes were not without conflict; in Spain, a collision between the forces of the Old Regime and the liberal movement persisted for decades.

B) The War of Independence

The French occupation of Spain triggered the uprising of the people in Madrid on May 2, 1808. Provincial defense boards were organized, refusing to support the resignation of Fernando VII and declaring war on France. These meetings were directed by a Central Supreme Board to organize resistance.

The nature of the war was twofold:

• National: The entire population participated in arms, utilizing guerrilla tactics, city sieges, and conventional army battles.
• Liberation: A struggle to end French domination.

The stages of the conflict were as follows:

1. Initial failure of the occupation: Highlighted by the Spanish victory at the Battle of Bailén.
2. French predominance: Lasted from 1809 to 1812.
3. Spanish offensive: Supported by the English, culminating in the battles of Vitoria and San Marcial (1812–1813).
4. Restoration: Through the Treaty of Valençay in 1813, the French were expelled from the peninsula, and Fernando VII was restored to power.

C) The Cortes of Cadiz in 1812

Simultaneously with the War of Independence, a liberal revolution took place in Cadiz, reflected in the Constitution of 1812. Key reforms included:

1. Political Reform

Established national sovereignty, the separation of powers (legislative, judicial, and executive), and civil liberties.

2. Institutional Reform

Spain was divided into provinces governed by a civil governor and council, while traditional councils were abolished in favor of centralized ministries.

3. Social Reform

Dissolved the estate system with the abolition of the seigneurial regime, established equality before the law, and initiated ecclesiastical confiscation.

4. Economic Reforms

Abolished guilds and introduced freedom of production and employment.