Spanish History: From the War of Independence to Restoration

The War of Independence

Spanish monarch Charles IV opposed the French Revolution, leading to a war with France. After being defeated, Spain signed a treaty to become an ally of France. In 1807, the Treaty of Fontainebleau was signed, which planned the invasion of Portugal. To reach Portugal, French troops passed through Spain and occupied several Spanish cities. This instigated the Mutiny of Aranjuez (1808). Napoleon I exploited the royal family's internal conflicts, kidnapped them, and proclaimed his brother King of Spain, triggering the War of Independence.

The Constitution of 1812

The war had significant political consequences. The absence of the monarchy created a power vacuum, leading to the formation of local boards. The Supreme Central Board was established to create a unified government and convened the Cortes (parliament). They drafted the Constitution of 1812 in Cádiz and adopted reforms that effectively ended the Old Regime.

The End of Absolutism

Ferdinand VII's return to power coincided with a major crisis and the loss of the American Empire. His reign was marked by dynastic problems, as many refused to accept the Pragmatic Sanction and supported the king's brother, Don Carlos. Upon Ferdinand's death, his widow took over the government, and the First Carlist War began. It lasted seven years and ended with the defeat of the Carlists at the Embrace of Vergara.

The Triumph of Liberalism

Maria Cristina, mother of Isabella II, served as the first regent. Her regency coincided with the Carlist War, during which she allied with the Liberals, who were divided into two groups: Moderates and Progressives. Under the leadership of Mendizábal, the Progressives took steps to abolish the Old Regime and establish a new constitution.

End of the Reign of Isabella II

Riots broke out in the countryside and cities due to economic instability. Progressives and Republicans were excluded from power, and the government's authoritarianism grew. The Queen became increasingly unpopular, partly due to rumors regarding her private life.

The Bourbon Restoration

After the restoration of the Bourbons, Spain entered a period of political stability. The Constitution of 1876 was conciliatory, satisfying both Moderates and Progressives. Alfonso XII, the son of Isabella II, was proclaimed king, establishing a constitutional monarchy.

The Pacific Period

The political system was defined by the turno pacífico, where two parties—the Conservatives and the Liberals—alternated in power.

The Opposition

• Anarchists: Emerged after the Revolution of 1868, with strongholds in Catalonia and Andalusia.
• Socialists: Led by Pablo Iglesias.