The Spanish Empire Under the Habsburgs: 16th Century Power

The Spain of the 16th Century: Iberian Unity

In 1581, the Portuguese Cortes gathered in Tomar and proclaimed Philip II as King. Known as Philip I of Portugal, he spent three years securing the annexation of Lisbon. Philip pledged to uphold and respect the privileges, customs, and rights of the Portuguese people. He also committed to maintaining the positions of all central government and local council officials. Furthermore, customs barriers with Castile were abolished.

The annexation resulted in the union of two great empires. Portuguese possessions in Brazil, Africa, and Asia were integrated into the empire of Philip II—an empire "where the sun never set."

External Political Struggles

The 16th century was marked by significant geopolitical conflicts:

• France: The 1557 Battle of Saint-Quentin solidified Spanish hegemony.
• The Ottoman Empire: Pope Pius V promulgated the Holy League. Spain and its allies, led by Don Juan of Austria, defeated the Turkish fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571.
• The Netherlands: In 1566, riots broke out due to political and religious causes, leading to significant losses in tax revenue and noble support.
• England: In 1588, the Great Armada faced Protestant England.

The Political Model of the Habsburgs

Castile became the center of the Empire, a trend that intensified under Philip II compared to his father, Charles V. In other realms and territories, the crown established Viceroys (Aragon, India, Italy) or Governors (Netherlands, Milan). These positions were held by high-ranking nobles or members of the royal family.

The King was advised by the Councils (the polysynodial system). These were either sectoral (e.g., Treasury) or territorial (e.g., Castile, Aragon, India, Italy). Composed of lawyers, nobles, and high clergy, these councils served a purely consultative role, with the King holding the final authority.

Charles V and Philip II managed daily affairs through trusted advisers known as Secretaries, who acted as intermediaries between the monarch and the Councils. Some, such as Antonio Pérez under Philip II, achieved significant influence. Additionally, magistrates appointed by the Crown maintained control over the cities.

In 1561, Philip II established Madrid as the capital. This decision was driven by the city's central location on the mainland and its environmental benefits, such as water access and hunting grounds. This move resulted in the rapid growth of the town as the seat of the Court.