Spain's Unification: Catholic Monarchs & Atlantic Expansion
The Catholic Monarchs: Unifying Spain
After the Capitulation of Cervera, a civil war (1475-1479) erupted. It pitted supporters of Isabel (the Crown of Aragon, the Papacy, and Castilian cities) against Joanna (Portugal, France, and part of the Castilian nobility). The tide began to turn in Isabel's favor after the Battle of Toro (1476).
Following Isabel's decisive victory, the Treaties of Saint-Jean-de-Luz and Alcáçovas were signed in 1479. Isabel was crowned Queen of Castile. Upon the death of John II, her husband Ferdinand of Aragon ascended to his throne, completing the dynastic union of Castile and Aragon.
After Isabel's death in 1504, a deep crisis ensued. Her designated heir, Joanna 'the Mad' of Castile, faced mental health challenges. This led to her husband, Philip I, assuming power. However, Philip died suddenly in 1506, paving the way for a regency under Cardinal Cisneros, who eventually handed power to Ferdinand.
Ferdinand's marriage to the heiress of the Navarrese throne facilitated the annexation of Navarre. He occupied it in 1512, defending rights granted by the Cortes of Navarre in 1513.
Atlantic Routes: Castile, Portugal, and the Canary Islands
Castile, under Alfonso XI, recovered and controlled strategic locations like Tarifa, Algeciras, and the Strait of Gibraltar after the Battle of Salado (1340).
The Canary Islands were inhabited by the Guanches, an indigenous people from the Sahara who lived in a Neolithic stage, residing in small settlements.
Genoese sailors, serving Portugal, Mallorca, and Catalonia, had reached the islands by the mid-13th century. However, it was the Frenchman Jean de Béthencourt who conquered them in the 1400s, later offering them to King Henry III of Castile.
Portuguese and Castilians vied for control of the Canaries. After the Treaty of Alcáçovas (1479) and the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), the islands remained under the Spanish Crown. Control was fully established with the conquest of Tenerife in 1495.
The County of Portugal gained independence from Castile with Afonso Henriques, grandson of Alfonso VI of Castile. Subsequent attempts by Castile to recover it failed. The 15th century marked a glorious stage in Portugal's history, characterized by Atlantic expansion and geographical discoveries in Africa, culminating in Vasco da Gama's arrival in India in 1498.