Spain's Political Crisis: From the Disaster of 1898 to Primo de Rivera
The Spanish-American War and the Disaster of 1898
Since 1868, insurrections in Cuba, often supported by the interests of sugar companies, sought to replace Spanish dominion over the island. Taking advantage of the sinking of the USS Maine in Havana harbor, the U.S. declared war on Spain. In the Treaty of Paris, Spain lost all its overseas possessions: Cuba, Puerto Rico, and others.
These disasters severely shook Spanish public opinion. The resulting loss of confidence fueled criticism of the political system and led to the emergence of the idea of regeneration. The Generation of '98 subsequently debated the necessity of regenerating Spanish society.
Timeline of the Cuban Conflict
- 1878–1895 (Pact of Zanjón): Decentralization promises were not fulfilled.
- 1893: Autonomy proposal was rejected; tariff protection caused discomfort in the U.S.
- 1895–1898: Cuban revolutionary struggle and Spanish repression, leading to U.S. intervention and Cuban independence.
Consequences of the Disaster of 1898
- Political: Political parties fell into disrepute.
- Economic: Loss of Cuba; reduced trade income.
- Military: Discredited military attempted to return to political intervention.
- Cultural: Calls to "Europeanize" Spain (Regenerationism).
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923–1930)
On September 13, 1923, Primo de Rivera declared a state of war and demanded that power be passed into the hands of the military. King Alfonso XIII entrusted him with the formation of a new government. The dictatorship lasted seven years.
Causes of the Coup
- The constitutional system was blocked and discredited.
- There was a serious danger of social revolution.
Stated Goals of the Dictator
The dictator announced his inaugural program, stating he wanted to:
- Clean the country of caciques (local political bosses).
- Eliminate political banditry.
- Address social indiscipline.
- Address threats to national unity.
Primo de Rivera aimed to dismantle an outdated system, but the coup also sought to prevent the system from becoming fully democratized, heading off possible reforms that might have been disturbing to certain sectors.
The Military Directory (1923–1925)
The actions of the first Military Directory showed its dictatorial nature, including:
- Suspension of constitutional rule.
- Dissolution of the legislative chambers.
- Termination of civil authorities.
- Prohibition of political activity by political parties and trade unions.
- Militarization of public order.
- Suppression of workers' organizations (CNT and others).
Regeneration was a key objective. To eliminate caciquism, provincial and municipal statutes were developed. All councils were dissolved and replaced with appointed boards.
The conflict in Morocco was the only major problem Primo de Rivera successfully resolved, although it did not initially interest him particularly. He was forced to intervene, leading to success when Abd-el-Krim surrendered to French troops, effectively ending the conflict the following year. (For more information on the dictatorship, see The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera.)