Spain's Path to Modernity: War, Uprising, and the 1812 Constitution
The Spanish War of Independence: Crisis and Transformation (1808-1814)
Origins of the Conflict: Crisis of the Old Regime
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the war against the French invasion of Spain originated from a deep crisis of the Old Regime. The reaction of the monarchy of Charles IV against the French Revolution led to the declaration of war on France, fearing the expansion of liberal ideals into Spain. This war proved to be a failure, and from 1799 onwards, Manuel Godoy, the most influential minister, adopted a radical foreign policy.
Godoy allied himself with Napoleon to confront Great Britain and authorized the passage of the French army through Spain to attack Portugal. The widespread discontent among the population culminated in the outbreak of the Mutiny of Aranjuez, which forced the resignation of the minister and the abdication of King Charles IV in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII.
The Bayonne Abdications and French Occupation
Given the volatile situation, Napoleon decided to summon both Charles IV and Ferdinand VII to Bayonne. There, they were compelled to abdicate, accepting the appointment of Napoleon's brother, Joseph Bonaparte (derisively known as "Pepe Botella"), as the new King of Spain.
These events ignited a popular uprising. On May 2, 1808, the people of Madrid rose up against the French troops, an example that was swiftly followed in many other parts of Spain.
Resistance and Guerrilla Warfare
To lead the resistance, local and regional Juntas (Boards) were created, eventually coordinated by a Supreme Central Junta. Simultaneously, groups of patriots organized effective guerrilla units to harass the French forces. The steadfast refusal of cities to surrender to the French, leading to prolonged sieges, also significantly contributed to the attrition of the invading troops.
Turning the Tide: British Aid and French Retreat
The course of the war dramatically changed in 1812. The crucial assistance provided by British troops under the command of Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, proved decisive. By the end of 1813, the French began their full withdrawal from Spanish territory. The Treaty of Valençay was signed, through which Ferdinand VII regained the Spanish crown, marking the definitive end of Napoleon's control over Spain.
The Cortes of Cádiz and the 1812 Constitution
The abdication of Bayonne had left a significant power vacuum. In 1810, the Supreme Central Junta convened a meeting of the Cortes in Cádiz. Representatives from all Spanish territories gathered in a single assembly. While a minority held absolutist views, the majority championed the new ideas of liberalism.
This new legislative chamber, established on behalf of the Spanish nation, drafted the Constitution of 1812. This landmark document reflected the basic principles of political liberalism. The Cortes of Cádiz also adopted various laws that sought to abolish the Old Regime. However, the ongoing war situation largely precluded the immediate application of everything legislated in Cádiz.