Spain's Path to Dictatorship: Crisis, Collapse, and Primo de Rivera (1917-1930)
The Spanish Crisis of 1917 and Political Collapse
The period following 1917 was characterized by the complete decomposition of the Spanish monarchy and its political system. This instability manifested across several critical areas:
- The Moroccan Problem: The situation in Africa was severely aggravated by the Disaster of Annual (1921), where approximately 15,000 Spanish soldiers were killed during a Moroccan attack due to fatal military planning.
- Political Fallout: Parliament established a committee of inquiry called the Picasso Commission (or Dossier) to investigate the disaster. The crisis deepened when the responsibility of King Alfonso XIII in the military failure was considered.
- Rural Mobilization: In Andalusia, three years of permanent peasant mobilizations occurred (1918–1921), demanding higher wages and land reform. This period is historically known as the Bolshevik Triennium.
- Urban Conflict: The final center of system decomposition occurred in Barcelona, known as the "years of gangsterism." This era produced armed clashes between anarchists and armed groups hired by Catalan employers. Martínez Anido, the Governor of Barcelona, implemented the infamous Ley de Fugas (Law of Escape) to justify the killing of detainees.
The confluence of these destabilizing elements culminated in the 1923 military coup led by Miguel Primo de Rivera. He established a dictatorship, abolished the constitution, and was accepted by Alfonso XIII, effectively making the monarch an anti-constitutional king.
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923–1930)
The dictatorship was a personal and authoritarian regime lacking a constitution or constitutional guarantees. The military coup aimed to restore public order, suppress trade unions, limit nationalist claims, and save the monarchy following the fallout from the Picasso Report. Consequently, political parties were eliminated, a move accepted by Alfonso XIII.
Stages of the Dictatorship
The regime progressed through two main phases:
- Military Directory (1923–1925): The government was composed exclusively of military members, placing the country under the exclusive control of the army.
- Civil Directory (1925–1930): Civilian politicians entered the ministry, sharing influence with the military. A key civilian minister during this phase was José Calvo Sotelo.
Institutionalization and Policy
The process of institutionalization was heavily influenced by the Italian fascist regime. Key institutional and political developments included:
- Assembly: A National Consultative Assembly was established. It was appointed, not elected, and served as the administrative body.
- Single Party: A single political party, the Patriotic Union (Unión Patriótica), was created.
Key Policy Areas
The broad outlines of the dictatorship's policy focused on two primary objectives:
- Ending the Rif War: Primo de Rivera successfully ended the war in Africa by defeating the Moroccans. This was made possible by the successful joint Spanish-French landing operation at Al Hoceima in 1925.
- Economic Interventionism: Economic policy was characterized by the creation of large state enterprises and monopolies, including:
- Telefónica
- Renfe (National Railway Network)
- Campsa (Petroleum Monopoly)
Labor and Repression
While Communist and anarchist political parties were persecuted and outlawed, the regime attempted to co-opt moderate labor elements. Labor agreements were made with the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers' Party). Joint Committees (Comités Paritarios), consisting of employers and workers, were established to negotiate working conditions, reflecting a corporatist approach to labor relations.