Spain's Democratic Sexenio: Revolution, Monarchy, and Republic

The Glorious Revolution of 1868

The discrediting of the Isabeline regime led to the unification of political forces in the so-called Pact of Ostend (1866), which called for an uprising and a liberal regency. In 1868, the "Glorious Revolution" began with the revolt of Admiral Topete, supported by Generals Prim and Serrano. The movement spread throughout the country with popular uprisings and the organization of local revolutionary juntas. Isabella II fled to France.

A provisional government was formed, headed by General Serrano, and elections were called for a direct Constituent Cortes based on universal male suffrage. The Revolution of 1868 saw at least two major socio-political blocs: the Progressives and Unionists, and the more moderate Democrats and Republicans.

The 1869 Constitution and Amadeo I's Reign

Developed by the Cortes in 1869, the Constitution:

• Provided an advanced declaration of individual rights, including the right of all citizens to political participation and universal male suffrage.
• Proclaimed national sovereignty, highlighting that all powers emanated from the nation, not the Monarchy.
• Gave great prominence to the Cortes as the maximum representative organ of the nation.

Once the constitution was approved, General Serrano, interim prime minister, was appointed regent, and Prim became prime minister. His job was to find a suitable candidate for the Spanish throne. Prim proposed the terms: the king ought to be a Democrat and not a Bourbon. Amadeus of Savoy was chosen.

Challenges of Amadeo I's Reign (1871-1873)

Amadeo I's reign was a period of great social instability, plagued by problems that ultimately ended his rule:

• The assassination of General Prim, a victim of an attack shortly before Amadeo reached Spain. Prim had been the king's principal protector and strongest supporter.
• Low support from political parties and the internal division of the democratic-monarchist coalition, which split into several groups, notably the Constitutionalist Party (led by Sagasta) and the Radical Party (led by Ruiz-Zorrilla).
• Social unrest linked to the burgeoning worker's movement.
• The outbreak of the Third Carlist War, which began in the middle of his reign.
• The Ten Years' War (1868-1878) in Cuba, which remained a constant conflict throughout his administration.

Given these constraints and the lack of support, Amadeo abdicated in 1873, and that same afternoon, the Republic was proclaimed.

Spain's First Republic (1873-1874)

This period was marked by profound political and institutional instability:

• Divisions among Republicans on the model of the State: unitary versus federal.
• Institutional instability, with four presidents of the Republic in one year: Figueras, Pi y Margall, Salmerón, and Castelar.
• Ongoing conflicts, such as the Ten Years' War in Cuba, and new ones like the Cantonalist uprisings.

In 1874, amidst great social instability, General Pavía staged a coup, occupying the Cortes and ordering their closure, effectively ending the First Republic.