Spain's Crisis of 1808: War of Independence and the Constitution of Cádiz
The Crisis of the Old Regime and Carlos IV (1788–1808)
Carlos IV (1788–1808), son of Carlos III, attempted to continue his father's reformist policies, but his reign marked the beginning of the crisis of the Old Regime in Spain. The effective government between 1792 and 1808 was exercised by the *valido* (favorite), Manuel Godoy. Godoy's extraordinary power severely damaged the image of the rulers.
Impact of the French Revolution
The influence of the French Revolution was profound in Spain, leading to a division among the Spanish Enlightenment thinkers:
- Those who opposed the news from France and joined the defenders of the Old Regime.
- Those who were radicalized by the events in France and saw it as an example to end the Old Regime.
Naval Conflict and Godoy's Diplomacy
The **Naval War** against the British, fought alongside the French (the Franco-Spanish alliance), was disruptive to Spain, severely affecting American trade and resulting in substantial losses for the Spanish Navy at the Battle of **Trafalgar (1805)**.
This conflict increased Godoy's notoriety. His growing power led him to align closely with Napoleon, resulting in the use of Spain as a bridge to invade Portugal (a British ally). Following the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807), French troops entered strategic locations across Spain.
The Aranjuez Mutiny (1808)
Due to the serious problems facing the country, Godoy's enemies exploited the situation. Godoy had planned for the royal family to move to America, but this triggered a popular uprising in Aranjuez, where the King resided. Carlos IV was forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII. This event is known as the Mutiny of Aranjuez (March 1808).
The War of Independence (1808–1814)
In this chaotic situation, Napoleon orchestrated the Bayonne Abdications, managing to install his brother, Joseph I Bonaparte, on the Spanish throne. When these maneuvers became known in Spain, war broke out.
Three Dimensions of the Conflict
The **War of Independence** was a complex event characterized by three overlapping dimensions:
- International Conflict: It was a major episode of the Napoleonic Wars that engulfed all of Europe until 1815.
- Civil War: The French forces were supported by *Afrancesados* (Francophiles)—intellectuals, political figures, and social elites who sought to end the Old Regime. They were opposed by the Patriots, who fought for Spanish sovereignty.
- Political Crisis and Sovereignty: The lack of a legitimate king (Ferdinand VII being imprisoned) caused a power vacuum. This led to the improvisation of an alternative political power structure: the local and provincial *Juntas* (councils).
The Birth of Constitutionalism
The establishment of the Juntas ultimately gave rise to the **Cortes of Cádiz**, which drafted and promulgated the **Constitution of 1812** (known as "La Pepa"), a foundational document of Spanish liberalism.