Spain's Bourbon Era & Global Revolutions (18th-19th Century)

Philip V: The War of Succession and Its Consequences

Carlos II, the last of the Habsburg dynasty in Spain, died without children. Before his death, he had chosen the Bourbon prince, Philip, Duke of Anjou (later Philip V), as his heir. However, the Austrian Habsburg family, led by Archduke Charles (later Emperor Charles VI), also laid claim to the Spanish throne.

This dynastic dispute ignited the War of the Spanish Succession, which raged between 1701 and 1714. Spanish society was divided: one faction, primarily Castile, supported Philip V (Bourbon), while the other, mainly Aragon, supported Archduke Charles (Habsburg). The war concluded with the Peace of Utrecht (1713), which recognized Philip V as King of Spain on the crucial condition that he would never inherit the French crown, thus preventing a Franco-Spanish union.

Consequences of Philip V's Reign

• Spain lost its European territories, including the Spanish Netherlands, Naples, Milan, and Sardinia.
• Political Reforms:
  • The Decretos de Nueva Planta (New Plant Decrees) centralized different powers in Madrid, abolishing the traditional laws and institutions of the Crown of Aragon.
  • The Battle of Almansa (1707) was a decisive victory for Philip V, solidifying Bourbon control over much of Spain.
  • Regalist policies led to enmity with the Papacy, asserting royal authority over the Church.
• Spain lost Gibraltar to Great Britain as part of the Treaty of Utrecht.

Fernando VI and Carlos III

Fernando VI died without children and was succeeded by his half-brother, Carlos III, who reigned from 1759 to 1788. Carlos III, an enlightened monarch, implemented several significant reforms:

• He promoted the establishment of academies and economic societies.
• He fostered agricultural and industrial development.
• He modernized Madrid and other cities.

Upon Carlos III's death, his son, Carlos IV, ascended to the throne.

Before the War of Independence

Carlos IV reigned alongside his wife, Maria Luisa of Parma, and with Manuel Godoy serving as his powerful Secretary of State.

Napoleon Bonaparte, the French Emperor, sought to march his troops through Spain to conquer Portugal, which was not complying with his Continental System (a blockade against Great Britain). Spain and France signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau in 1807, allowing French troops passage. Taking advantage of his forces' presence, Napoleon also intended to conquer Spain.

Godoy, aiming to consolidate his own power, attempted to send the royal family away, ostensibly for exile in the American colonies. However, the Spanish people, suspicious of his motives, organized the Mutiny of Aranjuez in 1808. This uprising demanded Godoy's dismissal and the abdication of Carlos IV in favor of his son, Ferdinand, who became Ferdinand VII.

In May 1808, Napoleon orchestrated a series of forced abdications in Bayonne. He compelled Ferdinand VII to abdicate in favor of his father, Carlos IV, who in turn abdicated in favor of Napoleon. Napoleon then appointed his brother, Joseph I Bonaparte, as King of Spain. These events are known as the Abdications of Bayonne (1808).

Independence War and Constitution

Divisions in Spain Regarding the French

In Spain, attitudes towards the French occupation were divided:

• Afrancesados: Supported Joseph I (nicknamed 'Pepe Botella') and his liberal ideas, believing they could modernize Spain.
• Patriotas: Opposed Joseph I and French rule, supporting the exaltation of homeland and nationalism, and often advocating for the return of Ferdinand VII.

Outbreak of War and Resistance

The War of Independence officially began on May 2, 1808, with a popular uprising in Madrid against the French.

On August 19, 1808, the Andalusian army, under the command of General Castaños, achieved a significant victory over the French in Bailén, marking their first defeat in Europe.

Joseph I Bonaparte (1808-1813), placed on the Spanish throne by Napoleon, was forced to abandon Madrid. French forces also lifted the sieges of Gerona and Zaragoza. In this situation, the Spanish people resisted fiercely through guerrilla warfare, involving the entire population in harassing the invaders and forcing Napoleon to temporarily retreat to France.

In 1812, Spain, with the crucial assistance of British forces led by the Duke of Wellington, launched a major offensive against the French troops. They decisively defeated them in Arapiles (Salamanca), which compelled Joseph Bonaparte to flee Spain and signaled the end of French domination.

The Cortes of Cadiz and the 1812 Constitution

In 1810, the Central Junta was dissolved, and an extraordinary Cortes (parliament) was assembled in Cadiz to assume national sovereignty. Dominated by liberals, the Cortes of Cadiz abolished lordships, the Inquisition, torture, and blood cleansing tests for access to public office.

The Constitution of 1812, promulgated on March 19 of that year, was the most important work of the Cortes of Cadiz:

• It recognized national sovereignty, the division of powers, and indirect male suffrage.
• It represented the adaptation of liberal ideas to the Spanish context and served as a model for later constitutions, not only in Spain but also in other European countries.

In 1813, the Spanish-British army commanded by Wellington triumphed in the battles of Vitoria (July) and San Marcial (August). Napoleon subsequently withdrew his forces from Spain and, by the Treaty of Valençay, returned the throne to Ferdinand VII, who then issued the Manifesto of the Persians, signaling his intent to restore absolutism.

Absolutism vs. Liberalism

Absolutism

• Sovereignty belongs to the king, who receives his right to govern directly from God.
• The king has absolute power and answers only to God and his conscience.
• The slogan of absolutism was 'Everything for the people, nothing by the people'.
• The will of the king is law.
• Inequality among people is considered natural.
• Ideas are controlled through censorship.
• The king controls economic life by granting monopolies and regulating production.

Liberalism

• Sovereignty belongs to the nation; the people govern themselves through their representatives.
• Power is never absolute; there should be a separation of powers.
• The right to vote is recognized; the people elect their representative parliament through suffrage.
• All citizens, including the king, must comply with laws, especially the Constitution or fundamental law.
• All men are equal in the eyes of the law.
• Freedom of the press is recognized.
• Separation of Church and state.

The American Revolution

The Founding of the United States

The 13 British colonies of North America organized the first colonial insurrection, establishing the first government founded on principles of equality and liberty.

American colonists were discontent with Britain for not allowing them representation in Parliament and for imposing commercial monopolies (e.g., tea) and taxes. This decision caused a rebellion in Boston, famously known as the Boston Tea Party (1773). King George III responded by sending an army to suppress the rebellion.

To strengthen their position against Britain, delegates from the 13 colonies met and drafted the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, which stated the duty of a government to respect the rights of its people.

After a long war and a decisive defeat at Yorktown, Britain recognized the colonies' independence in 1783. George Washington became the first president of the United States in 1789.

The United States Constitution

The first written Constitution in history was adopted in 1787. It ensured the separation of powers and established a republican government headed by an elected president (every four years) and a federal system of government. It established a bicameral legislature (Congress), comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate.

The Constitution was later supplemented by the Bill of Rights, guaranteeing fundamental freedoms such as religion, press, and assembly, and ensuring due process of law.

While it introduced manhood suffrage for white men, women, Native Americans, and enslaved people were excluded from voting.

The American Civil War (1861-1865)

Slavery was the main cause of the conflict. Northern states sought to abolish it, while Southern states, reliant on cotton plantations, fiercely opposed abolition and attempted to form an independent slave state.

Abraham Lincoln, leader of the liberal and industrialized North and founder of the Republican Party, led the Union to victory, resulting in the abolition of slavery.

The French Revolution

Factors That Triggered the Revolution

• Liberal Ideas: Enlightenment ideas, promoting criticism of absolutism, separation of powers, and equality before the law, gained popularity among all social strata.
• The Example of the United States: The success of the American Revolution, where figures like Marquis de Lafayette fought for liberty, inspired many French citizens. Delegates who signed the Declaration of Independence frequently visited France.
• Economic Crisis: The Seven Years' War (resulting in the loss of Canada) severely impacted the economy, leading to enormous public debt. The lavish spending of the Versailles court continued unabated, while a large percentage of the Parisian population suffered from poverty and hunger.
• Inequality Before the Law: The nobility and clergy enjoyed tax exemptions, while the middle class bore the brunt of taxation and shared the popular sentiment that the nobility contributed little economic benefit to the nation.
• Political Unrest: There was an atmosphere of great political unrest in Paris and the rest of France. Numerous propaganda pamphlets criticizing the Old Regime were printed and distributed, targeting the king and queen. Over 25,000 cahiers de doléances (books of grievances) were compiled, in which citizens and peasants articulated their complaints and demands.

Phases of the French Revolution

The Estates-General (1789)

• Louis XVI convened a consultative assembly of representatives from all three estates of the realm to address the severe financial crisis.
• They met at the Palace of Versailles, primarily to discuss tax reforms, including whether the nobility should pay taxes.
• The Third Estate demanded that votes be counted by head, not by estate, to ensure fair representation.
• The Third Estate delegates, feeling unrepresented, formed the National Assembly and swore the Tennis Court Oath, pledging not to disperse until France had a constitution.

National Constituent Assembly (1789-1791)

• The people of Paris revolted, storming the Bastille prison on July 14, 1789, a symbolic act against royal authority.
• The soldiers defending the prison eventually opened its doors to the revolutionaries.
• The king was unable to dissolve the Assembly, which proceeded to make crucial decisions, including the drafting of the 1791 Constitution and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.

Legislative Assembly (1791-1792)

• Absolutist powers like Austria and Prussia threatened to invade France to restore the monarchy.
• Different political factions emerged within the Assembly:
  • The Girondins, moderates who favored a constitutional monarchy.
  • The Jacobins, radical liberals who advocated for a republic.

The Republic (1792-1795)

• The Assembly declared the First French Republic and transformed into the National Convention, assuming both legislative and executive powers.
• King Louis XVI was tried for high treason and executed by guillotine.
• Under the leadership of Maximilien Robespierre, a prominent Jacobin, the Committee of Public Safety initiated a period known as The Reign of Terror, executing anyone suspected of being anti-revolutionary.

The Directory (1795-1799) and The Consulate (1799-1804)

• Following Robespierre's execution by moderates, a new government, the Directory, was established.
• Abroad, revolutionary France achieved significant military victories against Europe's absolutist powers.
• Its most prestigious general, Napoleon Bonaparte, staged a coup in 1799, seizing power and appointing himself First Consul, marking the end of the revolutionary period and the beginning of the Consulate.