Spain's 1898 Defeat: Colonial Loss and National Crisis

Spain's Colonial Decline: Cuba and the Philippines

In 1898, following a short war with the United States, Spain lost the last possessions of its colonial empire. This "Disaster of '98" was not only military and economic but also profoundly political. It discredited the dynastic parties and triggered a deep crisis within the political system established by Cánovas.

Cuba: Background to Conflict

Economic Importance and Social Structure

During the 19th century, Cuba became increasingly wealthy and politically significant. The island emerged as one of the world's main sugar producers, with 90% of its sugar sold to the U.S. In 1869, Cuba had a population of 1,400,000, approximately 30% of whom were enslaved Black people and Chinese laborers.

Early Uprisings and Spanish Policies

The Spanish colonial administration aimed to extract maximum economic benefit for the metropolis. This policy contributed to the uprising of 1868, known as the "Cry of Yara," which led to the Ten Years' War (or Long War). The conflict concluded in 1878 with the "Peace of Zanjón," but this agreement failed to provide lasting solutions for the colony.

The war devastated the old plantation slavery structure, paving the way for a large sugar industry increasingly controlled by North American capitalism. Furthermore, Spain's protectionist legislation harmed Cuban interests by forcing the island to buy Spanish products while its primary export, sugar, was sold mainly in the US.

The Cuban War of Independence (1895)

These factors explain the substantial popular support for the insurgency led by José Martí, beginning in 1895 with the "Cry of Baire." The war quickly spread throughout the island, compelling Spain to deploy 200,000 troops. Neither the skillful tactics of General Martínez Campos nor the brutal methods employed by General Valeriano Weyler managed to halt the independence movement. By mid-1897, insurgents controlled a significant portion of Cuba.

The Philippine Revolution (1896-1897)

Coinciding with the Cuban insurrection, a revolution occurred in the Philippines (1896-1897). Spanish colonization there was more superficial, primarily involving religious orders, the exploitation of some resources, and serving as a base for trade with China. The Philippine uprising was harshly repressed, and its principal leader, José Rizal, was executed in 1896. His followers founded the independence movement known as the Katipunan, which spearheaded the rebellion against Spain.

The Disaster of '98: US Intervention

Causes and Outbreak of War

U.S. pressure on Spain regarding the Cuban situation intensified in early 1898. American economic and political interests, supported by segments of public opinion, pushed towards war. The explosion of the U.S. battleship Maine in Havana harbor served as the pretext for the United States to declare war on Spain.

Military Defeats and the Treaty of Paris

Two decisive naval battles, one at Santiago de Cuba and the other at Cavite in the Philippines, destroyed the Spanish fleet. The subsequent landing of American troops on both islands forced the Spanish government to seek an armistice in July 1898. Months later, the Treaty of Paris was signed. Under its terms:

• The Philippines and Puerto Rico became American possessions.
• Cuba, while nominally an independent republic, fell under U.S. control.

The Impact of '98 in Spain: Regenerationism

Political and Social Crisis

The Disaster of '98 created profound dissatisfaction and pessimism within Spain. For opponents of the existing system (Republicans, Carlists, socialists, and regionalists), the defeat demonstrated the failure of the Restoration monarchy established after the pronunciamiento in Sagunto. A significant portion of society demanded fundamental change – a "regeneration" of the country.

The Call for Regeneration

This movement sought to replace the political system that protected the interests of the oligarchy. Key demands included:

• Moralization of public administration.
• State reform.
• Economic development (public works such as roads and water projects).
• A drive for public education.

It advocated for a practical approach, forgetting past glories, summarized by Joaquín Costa's phrase: "Pantry, school, and seven keys to the tomb of the Cid."

Joaquín Costa's Proposals

Joaquín Costa aimed to articulate a middle-class political movement to carry out these reforms, famously calling for an "iron surgeon" to implement them.

The Generation of '98

Besides Costa, a group of influential writers emerged, known as the Generation of '98. They shared a deep concern for Spain and its perceived backwardness, though they did not offer specific political programs. Prominent members included:

• Miguel de Unamuno
• Ramón del Valle-Inclán
• Pío Baroja
• Antonio Machado
• Ramiro de Maeztu
• Azorín (José Martínez Ruiz)