Soil Formation, Types and Spain's Agriculture & Fishing

Soil Formation and Composition

Soils are very important factors in farming and in the development of plants. The study of the formation and composition of soils is known as soil science.

When the rock (bedrock) is exposed to the action of the atmosphere, a phenomenon called weathering takes place. First, the rock undergoes mechanical fragmentation through the action of frost, changes in temperature, and so on. These processes attack the fragments most, causing erosion, and they then undergo chemical changes and are transformed into mineral substances.

The process of soil formation allows us to differentiate between young soils and mature or developed soils. A young soil or a mature soil depends not only on time but also on the climate and topography. In very cold climates, in dry areas, and in areas with steep slopes, soils remain young.

Soils are very varied, both in their components, texture, structure, humidity, and color.

Mineral and Organic Components

Mineral elements are subdivided into non-altered minerals (which are mainly the coarse sand part of the ground) and altered minerals (which constitute the fine soil or clay part).

The constituent organic elements, or humus, are the material found on the ground surface. Humus is the motherland of organic decomposition. The mixture of mineral and organic matter gives rise to different types of humus, depending on the degree of integration of mineral and organic matter.

Soil Types by Parent Rock

Soils can be acidic or basic. Acidic soils originate from granitic rocks, quartzites and sandstones. Basic soils originate mainly from limestone. The soil acidity of a pH is measured by the middle.

The soil depends on its texture, which depends on the grain size it contains. There are sandy, silty, and clayey textures.

The color of a soil describes an important element for identifying it. It can answer what quantity of humus, iron, and iron oxides the soil contains. Colors range from brown to reddish. A dark color indicates a high humus content. Red indicates good drainage, good aeration, and a considerable age. Soils can also take a color from white rock matter. They can show the presence of quartz, carbonates, or gypsum. Gray colors indicate water saturation of the soil; if the saturation is very intense, colors can become almost blue, typical of soils with poor drainage.

The Soil Profile and Horizons

The soil profile is a vertical section composed of horizons. When a short vertical cut is made, one can distinguish layers that differ in their color. Each layer is called a horizon. Not all soils have the same number of layers or horizons, as they do not all have the same degree of maturity.

In soils, the following are distinguished:

• Horizon O: the most superficial, formed of organic matter without decomposing, such as a layer of leaf litter.
• Horizon A (wash horizon): the layer located at the level of plant roots. It is dark because it accumulates organic matter. It is the horizon where materials are washed away (salts, minerals, and organic matter), which are carried by water infiltration to lower horizons.
• Horizon E: it does not appear in all soils. It is a colored soil with a sandy texture. It results from the loss of iron, aluminum, or humus.
• Horizon B (deposit horizon): located below the A horizon, where substances from upper horizons accumulate.
• Horizon C: formed by the alteration of bedrock fragments. In very young soils, it lies immediately below the A horizon.
• R horizon (bedrock)

In the profile of a soil, some subscripts applicable to different horizons may appear: salts for accumulation; for the B horizon that has received clay from upper horizons; for the B horizon that has received iron from upper horizons; for the permanently waterlogged soil; and for the presence of gleying.

Soil Classification

• Sandy soils: derived from granitic rocks, easy to identify by the presence of quartz and mica grains. They are variable in color and their components are preferentially minerals. They absorb water quickly and, having high permeability, retain few nutrients; water carries surface nutrients deep into the layers. For this reason they often need frequent fertilization.
• Clay soils: are compact soils that are impermeable. When they become saturated with water they turn muddy, which makes them difficult to work.
• Limestone soils: these are permeable soils well suited to cereal crops, vines, and olive trees.
• Humid soils: are dark and acidic as a result of the decomposition of organic matter. They retain water very well. They abound in areas of spontaneous vegetation and, being fertile, allow agricultural labors to be carried out easily.
• Young or immature soils: are made up of very little developed horizons and a C horizon. They are found in areas of extreme climates and steep slopes.
• Developed or mature soils: constituted by three horizons: A, B, and C. They are located in areas with intermediate temperatures and precipitation. The soil itself is an excellent source of nutrients for plants (as is the case with forest soils).

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)

Spain's Entry into Europe and Agricultural Restructuring

Spain's entry into Europe highlighted the need for a restructuring of Spanish agriculture to make it more competitive in international markets.

• It was a period of important structural actions aimed at improving farms and agricultural subsidy structures so that crops would not disappear.
• Over the last decades, Spanish agricultural policy has been conditioned strongly by the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), which has set objectives of productivity, a decent standard of living for farmers, market stability, and reasonable prices for consumers.
• For the excess, production quotas were imposed to limit products.
• The CAP increased rural development, with attention to helping backward regions and to the rural exodus. Beyond price policy, the CAP includes socio-structural measures such as support for mountain regions and socio-structural measures. The Common subsidies involve political stability. Three-quarters of the Spanish territory benefits from financing through the European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund (FEOGA).
• In 1991, the CAP's agri-environmental programs supported resources to boost rural counties with low population density, through subsidies for innovative projects and sports activities that contribute to diversifying the economy of depressed areas.
• It sought to curb environmental degradation.

Spain is fully integrated into Europe under the CAP, which has brought advantages and disadvantages. The main advantage has been access to a market of more than 600 million consumers. The agricultural sector needed to be modernized and requires strong investments to increase productivity, quality, and competitiveness.

The consequences of the CAP have been particularly problematic in certain areas. The Cantabrian cattle industry is very dependent on bovine exports in the EU. The cereal and vineyard areas also face problems of excess production, while the Mediterranean and Andalusian coasts find a good market for their horticultural products.

Location of the Main Crops

1 - Cereals

Cereals occupy 60% of the cultivated surface. Some are destined for human food, such as rice and wheat, while others are grown for livestock feed or for industrial feed manufacturing (barley, corn, oats, etc.). Cereal production has been increased through technical improvements. The most cultivated cereal land is found in the interior, where barley is grown. Rice and corn require a lot of water and are found in flooded rice areas (the Valencia albufera, the Ebro Delta, and the Guadalquivir marshes) or in irrigated areas, as is the case with corn.

2 - Legumes

Legumes are destined for consumption in green or dry form (beans, broad beans, lentils, chickpeas). Some are also used for animal feed. Andalusia, Extremadura, and both Castilian regions are the main producers.

3 - Vines

The vine is a shrub grown for grape production, either for fresh consumption or for making raisins or wine. Its production is characterized by low yields and it occupies poor soils that other crops cannot use. The producing areas are: Castilla-La Mancha and other areas with minor production; high-quality wines come from La Rioja, Priorat, Jerez, Montilla, and the Ribera del Duero. Production of cava is important in Catalonia.

4 - Olives

The olive tree is a very drought-resistant tree. Most of its harvest (90%) is destined for olive oil and some for table olives. Olive oil production is highly variable. The olive sector is most affected by restrictions imposed by the CAP. The price of olive oil has fallen, and the sector suffers from mechanization and competition from cheaper oils. The main producing areas in the south of the peninsula are concentrated in Extremadura and Andalusia, especially Jaén and Córdoba.

5 - Horticultural Crops

Horticultural crops are destined for fresh consumption, preservation, or industry. Production was traditionally subsistence-oriented, but today it is oriented toward export.

Vegetables are produced in the open, mainly in irrigated areas, with varied technical and operational requirements.

Fruit trees are grown in irrigated and dry areas, especially almond and avocado trees. Production has grown considerably, in line with increased consumption as a consequence of the improved standard of living. In the peninsula, major producing areas are the irrigated zones of the Mediterranean coast (Valencian Community, Andalusia, Murcia) and irrigated areas of the interior.

Floriculture has great importance in the Canary Islands, Catalonia, and the Valencian Community.

6 - Industrial Crops

Industrial crops are transformed by industry before final consumption. The main ones are sunflower, sugar beet, cotton, and tobacco. They are produced in half of the southern area of the peninsula (Andalusia, Castilla-La Mancha, Extremadura), except sugar beet, which is grown mainly in Castile and León, in the Duero valley.

• Sugar beet is grown in León and Castile and is located in Andalusia.
• Sunflower production has increased. It is located in Andalusia and Castilla-La Mancha.
• Cotton has its production area in Andalusia and Murcia.
• Tobacco has shown ups and downs in production. It is located in the vegas of the Plasencia area (Cáceres).

7 - Forage Crops

Forage crops are destined for animal feed (alfalfa, corn, vetch, etc.). Their production and cultivated area have doubled since 1950. Half of their cultivation area is concentrated in the north of Spain due to its physical environment, humidity, and irrigation.

Livestock Farming

Industrial Livestock Farming

Industrial livestock farming is intensive and relies on housing large numbers of cattle, feeding them with prepared feed and using advanced genetic control techniques. It is located in every region of Spain.

Extensive Livestock Farming

Extensive livestock farming takes advantage of natural pastures and grasslands, stubble fields, wastelands, and similar lands. The species exploited extensively are sheep and cattle.

When both are combined, the system is called mixed livestock farming. It predominates in sheep farming in Extremadura, Murcia, Castile and León, Aragon, and eastern Andalusia. Meat, wool, and skins are destined for consumer and industrial processing.

Transhumance is a system of exploitation based on livestock movement over many kilometers in search of pastures. These movements take place along pastoral roads called drove roads, whose damage affects crops.

Goat Farming

Goats have existed in Spain since ancient times. They are very sober and simple animals to feed. Their products, including meat, milk, and skin (which is tanned), are appreciated. Goat farms are generally of the mixed type, alternating grazing and housing. They are located in the south of Spain (Extremadura, Cádiz, Ciudad Real).

Pig Farming

Pig farming is destined in part for consumption and the production of fresh and cured meat. Some are fed with prepared feed to facilitate rapid fattening for slaughter; in other cases it is extensive farming (Iberian PDO).

Cattle are of economic importance. They are used for their milk, meat, and skin, which is tanned, and for their manure. Consumption and demand for beef and dairy products is rising. Livestock farming is abundant in Spain.

Fishing Activity

Fishing contributes little to Spain's GDP (0.5%). Spain's fishing sector accounts for 2% of the total world fishing catch, placing Spain 17th in terms of tonnage.

The Spanish coast does not have good conditions for fishing resources, so it is necessary to look for fishing grounds elsewhere. Fishing grounds are located:

• In areas where there is plankton (organisms that serve as food for fish and other species).
• In areas with wide continental shelves (areas with depths not exceeding 200 m).
• In areas where marine currents of different temperatures converge.

The existence of fishing grounds also depends on the temperature and salinity of the water.

In Spain, the following fishing regions can be distinguished:

1. Cantabrian region: runs from the French border to the mouth of the Eo River. Notable ports include Bermeo, Santoña, and Gijón.
2. Northwest region: runs from the Eo River to the Portuguese border. The Galician fishing region alone accounts for about 50% of the total Spanish catch. The most important ports are A Coruña and Vigo. This zone has the most developed canning industry.
3. Southwest Atlantic region: runs from the Guadiana River mouth to the Cádiz line. Important ports include Algeciras and Cádiz.
4. Canary region: corresponds to the Canary Islands archipelago, with its ports standing out.
5. Southern Mediterranean region: covers the coast from Cabo de Gata (Almería) to Gibraltar. Its most important ports are in Málaga and Almería.
6. Levantine region: runs from Cabo de Gata (Almería) to the Ebro Delta. Its main ports are Alicante, Torrevieja, and Santa Pola.
7. Tramontana region: runs from the Ebro Delta to Cape Creus. Notable ports are Castellón, Barcelona, and Tarragona.
8. Balearic region

Types and Techniques of Fishing

• Inshore fishing: practised near the coast, usually within 60 miles. The inshore fleet includes boats between 20 and 100 tonnes. The crew is made up of a few people, and trips are of short duration.
• Deep-sea fishing: is carried out by long-distance boats of greater tonnage with more crew members.
• High-seas fishing: is carried out in very distant fishing grounds close to the coasts of other continents (Newfoundland, Namibia, Sydney Islands...). Trips can last six or eight months.

Fishing Methods

Fishing methods have evolved over time. Fishing techniques include:

• Longline: the most traditional technique. It is used to catch tuna and cod in deep waters.
• Trap: a very old method using fixed traps. It is practised in southern coastal areas.
• Purse seine: used to capture surface species (sardines, anchovies...). It consists of a huge net with two cables: the upper part has floats and the lower part has lead ballast that allows it to reach the bottom.
• Trawling: trawl nets have a funnel shape and are dragged by one or two boats, catching species found on the seabed.
• Pair trawling: uses two boats towing a net that can extend for kilometers, dragging everything in its path.
• Trap fishing: boats use traps to capture fish. Live fish are kept in water tanks for transport after capture.
• Electric fishing: an electric field is used to attract fish toward suction pumps and nets. This practice is restricted in areas where resources are being depleted.

Exploitation of Resources

Introducing new technologies such as refrigeration and freezing of captured fish has allowed a variety of processing options. What distinguishes fish landed as fresh from fish caught at sea is how it is prepared, such as gutting, filleting, and so on. Losses in fish landed at sea are considerable and represent a smaller tonnage than the catch.

Imports and Exports

Spain is one of the main consumers of fishery products and must import them. Consumption has increased with the rise in the standard of living of the population.

State agencies provide aid for the marketing of fishery products, distinguishing them by quality and price, and carry out campaigns to promote consumption of certain species. In the marketing process, species are grouped together in the same lots, and auctions take place where fish is sold. Below-cost intermediaries and marketing by sellers increase the final price.

The main species imported are squid (Japan and Korea), cod (Iceland), hake and fresh sardine (Portugal), frozen hake (Japan), and crustaceans (Tunisia and Mozambique). The Spanish fishing trade balance is in deficit.

Aquaculture

Aquaculture is the aquatic reproduction of species in cages or fish farms. The development of mariculture research for obtaining marine resources is carried out through the Spanish Oceanographic Institute. Aquaculture initiatives are being developed by central and autonomous governments, as well as the European Union. By 2000 there were about 1,500 farms, two-thirds of which were privately owned. Notable regions include Galicia, Catalonia, and both Castiles.

Fishing Tourism

The river and fishing tourism has become a source of great importance, and fishing-based tourism is gaining greater momentum.

Crisis and Problems in the Fishing Activity

• Decline in the workforce.
• A decrease in its contribution to GDP.
• A deficit in foreign trade, with very high consumption due to domestic demand.
• Problems with fishing grounds: fishing is carried out in any fishing ground, and national fishing grounds are practically exhausted due to restrictions, while there are no other international fishing grounds.
• Restrictions on international fishing grounds.
• Overexploitation of national fishing grounds.
• Major environmental problems.

Fishing Policy and Sector Restructuring

To solve the problems of the fishing sector, the key is regulation and, above all, restructuring of the sector. Fishing policy is framed within the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP). The European Union sets fixed prices for fishery products, liberalizes internal exchanges, eliminates customs duties and tariffs for imports from the Union, and adopts measures for regulation, restructuring, and environmental protection. The European Union regulates Spanish access to Community fishing grounds.

Agrarian Geography Vocabulary

• Farm: the technical and economic unit that obtains agricultural products under the responsibility of one holder and uses the same means of production. There are many differences between provinces and regions.
• Parcel: the extent of land under one land holding, consisting of land, buildings, or water that do not belong to the same agricultural holding. Parcels may be small or large, medium or large; they may be preferentially favoured when they are regular, or when they are irregular because of topographic or historical causes.
• Bocage: taking into account their limits, when a parcel is enclosed, a bocage landscape is created. Parcels are separated by hedges, walls, trees, etc. Bocage landscapes abound in the Atlantic areas of Spain, in areas of smallholdings and populated areas. Bocage disperses the land and greatly hinders mechanization of the field.
• Open fields: when a parcel is not enclosed and has no physical limits, it is an open-field landscape or openfield.
• Agrarian morphology: the agricultural landscape is the aspect that cultivated space offers. Space is divided into parcels and can be arranged in various forms.
• Monoculture: a farming system based on a single predominant production. It occurs frequently in large estates and farms.
• Polyculture: a crop production system based on various crops of different types, generally for self-consumption. Its economies are self-sufficient. Traditional agricultural exploitation does not facilitate mechanization.
• Smallholding: small farm dimensions (less than 10 hectares). They are generally exploited by the same owner and his family (direct exploitation) using quite traditional techniques.
• Estates: farms exceeding 100 hectares of surface area. Their origin has deep historical roots. They predominate in the south of Spain (Andalusia, Extremadura, areas of Castilla-La Mancha, etc.). In these there is often latifundia monoculture, where there is never direct exploitation and agricultural day laborers exist.
• Systems of operation: joint technical and economic relations established between the means of the producer and production. There are several kinds.
• Direct operation: when the same owner of the land cultivates the earth himself. A system where the owner and the operator are different people working the land is considered indirect operation. Systems within indirect operation include: sharecropping, when the owner and the sharecropper agree on the division of the harvest; tenancy, when the field worker pays the landowner a fixed quantity per year; and day labor, where agricultural workers receive a salary for hours (days) of work.

Agricultural Practices

• Fallowing: a practice of letting land rest to recover naturally, without human action. Fallow is the technique consisting of leaving agricultural land to rest for some time. Fallows can be eliminated, or it may be difficult if fertilizers are used, and they reduce the nutrients needed for the development of crops and plants.
• Crop rotation: alternation of different crops on the same farm in a single agricultural cycle.
• Mechanization: a system that uses machinery in the various phases of agricultural production, from land clearing and preparation of the ground to the transport and harvest of the product. It includes tractors, harvesters, threshers, and so on. Field mechanization changes the agricultural landscape in general.
• Fertilization: crops deplete soil nutrients, so it is necessary to add fertilizers to compensate for these losses and maintain soil fertility. Their use can eliminate fallowing and even crop rotation, and allows the intensification of monocultures and cultivation.
• Bancals (terraces): terraces are built so that land can be cultivated on steep slopes. Agriculture on mountainous slopes is difficult because erosion prevents the formation and accumulation of soil, making mechanization practically impossible. For this reason, on the slopes of mountains, crops are grown in terraces, with tree or shrub crops (fruit trees, olives, vines...).
• Humus: humus constitutes the organic soil horizon. It is the uppermost part of the soil and provides the motherland for organic decomposition.
• GM crops: crops whose genes are being manipulated to make them resistant to pests, drought, and so on.
• Industrial crops: crops that undergo industrial transformation before consumption. The main industrial crops are sunflower, sugar beet, cotton, and tobacco.
• Forage crops: crops destined for animal feed (alfalfa, corn, vetch...). Their production has increased. Their cultivation area is concentrated in the north of Spain.

Fishing Vocabulary

• Aquaculture: aquatic reproduction of species in both marine and freshwater farms. The species developed are varied and include fish from freshwater (trout, salmon...), marine crustaceans and shellfish (oysters, mussels...), and algae.
• Blue Europe: the EU's responsibility for managing fishing agreements in multilateral and bilateral relations, the fixed areas, the types of fishing, the sizes of fish, and the catch volume of each fishing boat. Spain has access to the resources of the European Union.
• Fishing grounds: are the appropriate places for setting or pulling nets. Fish are not found everywhere in the sea; the existence of fishing grounds depends on factors such as the existence of continental shelves, the abundance of plankton, and the convergence of marine currents of different temperatures.
• Plankton: a community of animals, plants, and bacteria living in natural waters. Plankton in suspension serves as food for small fish and other species.
• Continental shelf: the zone extending from the coast that is covered by marine waters, reaching depths of up to 200 meters.
• Auction: a public building where fishermen and merchants meet to set the price of their products and sell them.