Scientific Explanations, Methods, and Progress
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Scientific Explanations
A scientific explanation provides an answer to the question of why a particular event has occurred. The philosopher Ernest Nagel classified scientific explanations into four distinct types:
- Deductive Explanation: Typical of natural and formal sciences.
- Probabilistic Explanation: Common in human sciences and medicine.
- Teleological Explanation: Clarifies historical events or human behavior.
- Genetic Explanation: Used in history and the natural sciences.
The Scientific Method
A method is a stable process consisting of specific rules to achieve a goal; the term literally means path. Key methods include:
- Deductive Method: Deriving specific conclusions from general principles. Only feasible in formal sciences.
- Inductive Method: Reasoning that moves from individual cases to general knowledge. While it provides laws, its conclusions can be questionable.
- Hypothetical-Deductive Method: A combination of the previous methods involving several steps:
- Definition of the problem
- Formulation of the hypothesis
- Deduction of consequences
- Testing the hypothesis
- Confirmation or refutation of the hypothesis
- Obtaining results
Progress and Limits of Science
There are two primary philosophical positions regarding scientific advancement:
- Karl Popper: Argues for the continuous progress of science. For falsificationists like Popper, no theory is considered absolute truth, as it could be falsified in the future.
- Thomas Kuhn: Proposes the theory of scientific revolutions, criticizing the continuous and progressive vision held by falsificationists.
The Social Dimension of Science
The Institutionalization of Science
Collective knowledge represents what a society accepts as true at a given time, which is often more critical than personal knowledge. Scientific research is heavily dependent on political institutions and economic priorities, which dictate the direction of investigation.
The complexity of modern research has fostered an international scientific community that is globally connected. Never before has there been such thorough dissemination of scientific discoveries and research findings.